2. Topics
īŽ Introduction
īŽ Purpose & definition
īŽ Types
īŽ Information from surveys
īŽ Steps of surveys
īŽ Study population & Sampling
īŽ Questionnaires
īŽ Interviews & schedule
īŽ Advantages & limitations
3. Introduction
īŽ In many occasions it becomes essential
to have information other than routine
for some definite purpose.
īŽ Surveys are the means of data
collection in such cases.
īŽ Surveys may be carried out on total
population or on a sample.
īŽ Surveys may differ in their purpose,
size, design, scope, content & method.
4. Surveys are the scientific studies carried
out to obtain information on health
condition of a population or to plan,
prioritise,monitor or evaluate a health
programme or to carry out comparisons.
5. īŽ The purpose of these studies in
community medicine is to collect
information that will provide basis for
action, immediately or in long run.
īŽ A survey can be a means to stimulate
public interest in a particular topic and
then to community action.
6. First steps
īŽ Clarifying the purpose.
īŽ Use of literature.
īŽ Ethical considerations.
īŽ Formulation of the topic.
7. Types of surveys
īŽ Descriptive population â co relational
individual - case reports
case series
cross sectional
īŽ Analytical case- control
cohort studies.
8. Information from surveys
īŽ Birth rate, age specific fertility rates,
family size.
īŽ Mortality rates.
īŽ Nutritional status.
īŽ Endemicity of the diseases.
īŽ Morbidity rates.
īŽ Perception of community.
.
9. ContdâĻ
īŽ Community knowledge, attitude and
practices.
īŽ Availability and sources of health care.
īŽ Economic status, occupation and
education level.
īŽ Environmental conditions & housing
status.
īŽ Determinants of disease or death.
10. Steps of survey
īŽ Statement of general & specific objectives.
īŽ Assessment of resources.
īŽ Determination of methodology.
īŽ Design of interviewers guide & schedule.
īŽ Construction of dummy tables.
īŽ Selection & training of interviewers.
īŽ Administrative planning.
īŽ Pretesting of schedule and questionnaire.
īŽ Collection of data.
īŽ Compilation analysis and reporting.
īŽ Evaluation.
11. Step 1
statement of objectives
īŽ The use to which the study is carried out.
īŽ Must be clearly identified & stated.
īŽ General objective (only 1)
should express the broader terms.
to collect the base line information.
to revaluate a condition.
e.g. to collect information on epidemiology of
major communicable disease.
12. īŽ Specific objectives. (generally numerous)
aim to be achieved by the survey specifying
data to be gathered.
specifies on certain selected topics in the
study.
variables to be studied must be precisely
identified and defined.
e.g.In a KAP study, practice of the population
related to family planning with a specific
contraceptive method.
13. Step 2
Assessment of resources
īŽ Back bone of a survey.
īŽ They are in terms of,
īŽ various categories of manpower
basic field workers
supervisors
supportive staff
staff for data handling
and statistical analysis.
Their numbers, training,period,availability,time expenditure.
14. Contd...
īŽ Resources in terms of transport, stationary,
duplicating machines, electronic data
handling machines and equipments for clinical
and lab examinations are to be assessed.
īŽ Additional resources need to be calculated.
īŽ Match between resources available and
expectation from a survey should be
practical.
15. STEP 3
Determination of methodology
īŽ Methodology depends upon objectives,
type of data to be collected and
characteristics of the population.
īŽ Collection of data can be done by using,
an interview schedule or
a questionnaire.
16. Interview
Objective :
Exchange of ideas or experiences, eliciting of
information pertaining to a wide range of
data in which the interviewee may wish to
rehearse his part, define his present and
canvass his future possibilities.
īŽ Task of the interviewer is to ascertain
opinions, attitudes, values that are on the
surface.
īŽ Explore personality forces in the subjectâs
unconsciousness.
17. A Schedule
īŽ Schedule is a programme to conduct an
interview.
īŽ Its an instrument to be filled in by an
interviewer.
īŽ Most common method.
e.g. face to face interview with woman
of reproductive age group.
īŽ Data on large number of items are
collected in this way.
18. Questionnaire
īŽ A series of preset questions designed to
elicit the required information.
īŽ To be filled in by respondent.
īŽ Ways of obtaining response:
1.By mailing the questionnaire.
2.By asking directly (Interview).
19. īŽ Types:
Structured :
Closed â MCQ type
Open -- Blank type
Unstructured : Flexibility is the main
advantage.
No limitations imposed.
Non additive & non comparable
data may be accumulated.
20. How to prepareâĻ.
īŽ Limit the length & scope.
īŽ Limit the time for a max of 30 minutes.
īŽ Give more detailed experience of inquiry.
īŽ Now max about the problem before structuring.
īŽ Include all relevant & delete unnecessary.
īŽ Simple wording, avoid personal & embarrassing.
īŽ Maintain uniformity & move from inside to outward of
the problem.
īŽ Try to awaken the interest of the respondent.
21. Advantages
īŽ Economical.
īŽ Covers large population scattered over a wide area.
īŽ Mailed questionnaire saves the time, ensures privacy,
freedom to express.
īŽ Analysis & interpretation can be done quickly.
īŽ Sufficient leisure time.
Disadvantages
īŽ Illiteracy.
īŽ Not suitable for spontaneous answers.
īŽ Lack of flexibility.
īŽ Skipping questions possible.
22. STEP 4
Construction of dummy tables
īŽ Constructed at planning stage.
īŽ Clarity of analytical methods results from
such an exercise.
īŽ Modification needed becomes obvious at
this stage itself.
23. STEP 5
Selection& training of interviewers
īŽ Obviously literates, speak local language,
have field experience, good social contact &
be acceptable to the population.
īŽ Purpose â to achieve uniformity, eliminate
sampling errors ( bais,skill,approach).
īŽ Use general technique, clear concept,
motivate the subject.
īŽ Entertain demonstration, group discussion.
īŽ Prepare interviewers guide.
24. STEP 6
Administrative planning
īŽ For recruitment, training & supervision.
īŽ Administrators may be health service
personnel or temporarily assigned ones
like students/volunteers.
īŽ Use local calendars to finalize the dates.
25. Step 7
Pretesting
īŽ Applied in field on a small scale (pilot study).
īŽ Ensures that methodology fulfills the
objectives.
īŽ Variability in response can be identified.
īŽ Checks the hurdles at initial stage.
īŽ Eases any problems that are likely to arise by
filling dummy tables at early stage.
26. Step 8
Collection of data
īŽ Advanced publicity is given.
īŽ Meeting community leaders.
īŽ Timing of the survey convenient to respondents
E.g,Early morning survey.
Method :
īŽ Identify himself, explain the purpose of visit & assure
confidentiality.
īŽ Confirm that household is included in the sample.
īŽ Develop a favorable climate & establish rapport to
win the confidence.
īŽ Items in the data are asked.
īŽ Current & consecutive supervision of the survey.
27. Step 9
Compilation,analysis & reporting
īŽ Arrangement of data depending on the scope
& magnitude of the survey.
īŽ Done manually or by using electronic
processing systems.
īŽ Analysis is done as per original intention of
the survey by filling dummy tables.
īŽ Report should satisfy the needs of objectives.
īŽ Reasons for non coverage of target
population should be stated.
28. Step 10
Evaluation
īŽ It denotes the stability and consistency of
information.
i.e, extent of correspondence & similarity
when data is collected again.
īŽ Reliability can be evaluated by comparing one
data with another.
E,g, dietary consumption can be cross
checked with income, standard of living etc
īŽ Evaluation helps to strengthen the evidence
for the survey.
29. Advantages
īŽ Provides information on health aspects about which
information is not otherwise available from any
source.
īŽ Information pertaining to numerator as well as
denominator becomes available, rates & ratios can be
calculated.
īŽ Association between them can be identified.
īŽ Groups who need more attention can be identified.
īŽ Data will be reliable, accurate and complete.
īŽ Sampling reduces the cost and increases accuracy.
īŽ Information on health related behavior can be
obtained.
30. Limitations
īŽ Information collected is subjected to errors.
(sampling & non sampling errors).
īŽ Efficiency of workers can be fluctuating.
īŽ Unwillingness to participate and inability to
understand questions.
īŽ Non-availability of respondents at the time of
survey.
īŽ Large geographical area coverage will need
more recourses.
īŽ Survey procedure is expensive in terms of man
power & other costs.
31. SURVEY RESEARCH
īŽ TYPES OF SURVEYS
īŽ SELECTING THE SURVEY METHOD
īŽ CONSTRUCTING THE SURVEY
īŽ ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES
32. TYPES OF SURVEYS
īŽ Two broad categories :
īŽ 1. Questionnaire
īŽ 2. Interview
33. Some examples
īŽ Automated telephone surveys
īŽ Computerised kiosks in public places
īŽ Hotel room â Customer satisfaction
survey
īŽ Website survey
37. Population Issues
īŽ Can the population be enumerated?
īŽ Is the population literate?
īŽ Are there language issues?
īŽ Will the population cooperate?
īŽ What are the geographical restrictions?
38. Sampling Issues
īŽ What data is available?
īŽ Can respondents be found?
īŽ Who is the respondent?
īŽ Can all members of the population be
sampled?
īŽ Are response rates likely to be a
problem?
39. Question Issues
īŽ What types of questions can be asked?
īŽ How complex will the questions be?
īŽ Will screening questions be needed?
īŽ Can question sequence be controlled?
īŽ Will lengthy questions be asked?
īŽ Will long response scales be used?
40. Content Issues
īŽ Can the respondents be expected to
know about the issue?
īŽ Will respondent need to consult
records?
41. Bias Issues
īŽ Can social desirability be avoided?
īŽ Can interviewer distortion and
subversion be controlled?
īŽ Can false respondents be avoided?
44. Writing a question
īŽ Determining the question content,
scope and purpose
īŽ Choosing the response format that we
use for collecting information from the
respondent
īŽ Figuring out how to word the question
to get at the issue of interest
īŽ How best to place them in our survey.
54. Multiple filter questions
īŽ Avoid having more than 3 levels [2
jumps] for a question
īŽ If only 2 levels, use graphic to jump[
eg. Arrow & box]
īŽ If possible jump to a new page
īŽ âIf yes turn to page 4â is better than â
If yes ,please go to question 38â
55. Question content
Is the question necessary/useful?
īŽ Do you need the age of each child or
just the number of children under 16?
īŽ Do you need to ask income or can you
estimate?
56. Are several questions needed?
īŽ Double barreled question
- What are your feelings towards African-Americans
and Hispanic-Americans?
- What do you think of proposed changes in benefits
and hours?
- Does not cover all possibilities
- Eg. Earnings
- Does not give you enough context
- Eg. Attitude towards catholics
- Does not determine the intensity
- Eg. Support Public TV
57. - Do respondents have needed
information?
- Does the question needs to be more
specific?
- Is question sufficiently general?
- Is question biased or loaded?
- Will respondents answer truthfully?
59. Question Wording
īŽ Can the question be misunderstood?
īŽ What assumptions does the question make?
īŽ Is the time frame specified?
īŽ How personal is the wording?
īŽ Is the wording too direct?
īŽ Does the question contain difficult or unclear
terminology?
īŽ Does the question make each alternative explicit?
īŽ Is the wording objectionable?
īŽ Is the wording loaded or slanted?
60. Question Placement
īŽ Decisions about Placement
īŽ Is the answer influenced by prior questions?
īŽ Does question come too early or too late to
arouse interest?
īŽ Does the question receive sufficient
attention?
īŽ The opening questions
īŽ Sensitive questions
61. A checklist of considerations
īŽ Start with easy, nonthreatening questions
īŽ Put more difficult, threatening questions near end
īŽ Never start a mail survey with an open-ended
question
īŽ For historical demographics, follow chronological
order
īŽ Ask about one topic at a time
īŽ When switching topics, use a transition
īŽ Reduce response set (the tendency of respondent to
just keep checking the same response)
īŽ For filter or contingency questions, make a flowchart
62. The Golden Rule :
īŽ Thank the respondent at the beginning for allowing
you to conduct your study
īŽ Keep your survey as short as possible -- only include
what is absolutely necessary
īŽ Be sensitive to the needs of the respondent
īŽ Be alert for any sign that the respondent is
uncomfortable
īŽ Thank the respondent at the end for participating
īŽ Assure the respondent that you will send a copy of
the final results
63. Interviews
Interviews are among the most
challenging and rewarding forms of
measurement. They require a personal
sensitivity and adaptability as well as
the ability to stay within the bounds of
the designed protocol.
64. Preparation
īŽ The role of the Interviewer
īˇ Locate and enlist cooperation of
respondents
īˇ Motivate respondents to do good job
īˇ Clarify any confusion/concerns
īˇ Observe quality of responses
īˇ Conduct a good interview
65. Training the Interviewers
īˇ Describe the entire study
īˇ State who is sponsor of research
īˇ Teach enough about survey research
īˇ Explain the sampling logic and process
īˇ Explain interviewer bias
īˇ Walk through" the interview
īˇ Explain respondent selection procedures, including
īˇ 1.Reading maps
īˇ 2.Identifying households
īˇ 3.Identify respondents
īˇ 4.Rehearse interview
īˇ 5.Explain supervision
īˇ 6.Explain scheduling
66. The Interviewer's Kit
īŽ A "professional-looking" 3-ring notebook (this
might even have the logo of the company or
organization conducting the interviews)
īŽ Maps
īŽ Sufficient copies of the survey instrument
īŽ Official identification (preferable a picture ID)
īŽ A cover letter from the Principal Investigator
or Sponsor
īŽ A phone number the respondent can call to
verify the interviewer's authenticity
67. The Interview
īŽ Opening Remarks
1. Gaining entry
2. Doorstep technique
3. Introduction
4. Explaining the study
68. Asking the questions
īŽ Use questionnaire carefully, but
informally
īˇ Ask questions exactly as written
īˇ Follow the order given
īˇ Ask every question
īˇ Don't finish sentences
70. Recording the Response
īˇ Record responses immediately
īˇ Include all probes
īˇ Use abbreviations where possible
71. Concluding the Interview
īˇ Thank the respondent
īˇ Tell them when you expect to send
results
īˇ Don't be brusque or hasty
īˇ Immediately after leaving -- write down
any notes about how the interview went
72. Plus & Minus of Survey
Methods
Issue Questionnaire Interview
Group Mail Drop-Off Personal Phone
Are Visual Presentations Possible? Yes Yes Yes Yes No
Are Long Response Categories Possible? Yes Yes Yes ??? No
Is Privacy A Feature? No Yes No Yes ???
Is the Method Flexible? No No No Yes Yes
Are Open-ended Questions Feasible? No No No Yes Yes
Is Reading & Writing Needed? ??? Yes Yes No No
Can You Judge Quality of Response? Yes No ??? Yes ???
Are High Response Rates Likely? Yes No Yes Yes No
Can You Explain Study in Person? Yes No Yes Yes ???
Is It Low Cost? Yes Yes No No No
Are Staff & Facilities Needs Low? Yes Yes No No No
Does It Give Access to Dispersed Samples? No Yes No No No
Does Respondent Have Time to Formulate Answers? No Yes Yes No No
Is There Personal Contact? Yes No Yes Yes No
Is A Long Survey Feasible? No No No Yes No
Is There Quick Turnaround? No Yes No No Yes
73. REFERENCES
īŽ 1.DOME presentations by Dr.Padmaja
Walvekar and Dr.C.S.Metgud
īŽ 2.K.PARK,Text book of Community
Medicine,18th edition
īŽ Text Book of Survey Methods,Abramson,5th
ed
īŽ Text book of Sociology,Shakar Rao 3rd ed
īŽ Text book of Epidemiology tools,Sathe &
Sathe 2nd ed
īŽ www.socialresearchmethods.net