The document provides information about editing techniques used in early cinema and their evolution over time. It discusses how editing was limited in early films which typically consisted of single static shots. It then explains how editing evolved with techniques like continuity editing being introduced, allowing scenes to be shot from different angles and locations and edited together coherently. The document also discusses important early filmmakers and their pioneering of techniques like Georges Melies with his exploration of surreal editing. It analyzes some early films and how they employed techniques of the time. Overall, the document traces the history and progression of editing from its limited beginnings to the advanced non-linear digital techniques used today.

1. Case Studies Guidance Notes
Early Cinema
1: Editing in Early Cinema
In early cinema, many filmmakers seemed hesitant to splice different shots from
separate locations together, assuming this would confuse audiences. However, it
soon became apparent that audiences would enjoy an entirely different experience at
theatres, and so new techniques and styles were adopted. Certain individuals such
as Thomas Edison and the Lumiere Brothers are famous for pioneering the essential
aspects of producing a motion picture. The first time films were ever screened to an
audience was during the late 1800’s, and one such film, “Arrival of a Train at a
Station” was presented in 1895.
It was the Lumiere Brothers who produced this series of films. They referred to them
as ‘actualities’. The camera remained static and the flow of action went uninterrupted
all the way through. There was a mixture of fascination and horror within the
audience who had never seen anything like it before. However, because editing
techniques were only just being discovered, filmmakers were highly limited to how
they could develop their movies.
Arrival of a Train at La Ciotat (The Lumiere Brothers, 1895)
Arrival of a Train at La Ciotat (28th
December 1895) is considered the first public
exhibition of a motion picture in modern history. Even though it only shows the arrival
of a train at a passenger station, this short film was enough to send the paying
audience fleeing in terror on its first showing (according to urban legend). There is no
intentional camera movement whatsoever; the film consists of one continuous shot.
This particular motion was enough to satisfy audiences back then in a dramatic way.
Because motion picture had only just being discovered, the film featured a single,
long and static shot of the train with no editing or dialogue.
2: Continuity
Continuity is the act of creating transitions between the shots of a film so the whole
thing appears to follow an uninterrupted flow of action and is coherent towards the
audience. Continuity editing would have become the dominant form of editing in early
cinema because it enabled development of separate, simultaneous scenes in
movies. But there were disadvantages:
For the Audience: Continuity editing can have a negative impact on the way people
perceive the structure of events in a narrative film. Discontinuities in action, which is
often the result of continuity, can have an impact on the behaviors of the audience
due to a sense of discontinuity in space and time.
For the Filmmaker: Filmmakers use continuity editing to engender a sense of
continuity or discontinuity within their films. They may experience great difficulties
while attempting to maintain a continuous flow of action in the face of discontinuities
due to use of continuity editing. Filmmakers might also intend to depict a narrative
event in a matter of seconds (whilst using continuity editing techniques) which would
take a long period of time to produce.

2. Current editing styles in movies are much better than traditional editing styles. This is
because there are lots of techniques which can be used in films today and
technology is more advanced than it was at earlier time periods. One such style is
cutting on action where two different shots of the same subject e.g. a person
walking are placed together so there are two different-length shots on the same
visual axis. These editing styles make films look a lot more appealing than traditional
editing styles would.
3: Georges Melies
George Melies explored different types of techniques and styles, combining
traditional theatrical elements to motion pictures so he could present spectacles that
were never even thought possible. He is a very important individual as he made a big
contribution to cinema. He is the one who discovered the apparently endless
capacities of cinema, which had the ability to manipulate and distort time and space.
George Melies explored surreal editing, as well as editing in camera techniques.
Through these techniques, he found ways to achieve simple special effects through
editing and methods to produce films if the overall production could not be edited.
In 1902, Georges Melies created “A Trip to the Moon”, where he used many
innovative techniques to create special effects. Melies appeared interested in certain
styles e.g. mise en scene, which was one of his biggest innovations. This stylistic
choice appeared in “A Trip to the Moon”. The film provides good examples of the
techniques used during the 19th
century. The sequences of the film are dramatic and
uninterrupted by visual editing techniques, proving that Melies’ finished production
was unable to be edited and that he approached a theatrical style to fit the film.
A Trip to the Moon (1902)
4: Edwin S. Porter
Edwin S. Porter was another key individual in early cinema. He discovered new ways
to tell stories in films and attempted to emulate the trick photography introduced by
Georges Melies. Porter had great skill with editing techniques and projection in films
and he combined his own footage to produce documentary films. He pioneered ways
to make movies more dramatic by adding tension and release with combined
footage. Porter had an excellent use of editing. He explored techniques such as
workbench cutting and areas of continuity editing. Workbench cutting involved taking
reels of films apart and placing them back together. Continuity Editing involved
creation of coherent transitions between shots of films.
The Great Train Robbery was written, directed, and produced by Porter in 1903. The
film used techniques e.g. composite editing and cross cutting, which were also
techniques explored by Porter. His film also included the innovative style of continuity
editing, which resulted in highly continuous footage throughout. The Great Train
Robbery is considered a milestone in filmmaking.
The Great Train Robbery (1903)

3. Technological Developments
1: Evolution of Editing
Linear Editing: Linear editing is the process of selecting, arranging and modifying
images and sounds in a pre-determined, careful, and ordered manner to make the
overall product more effective.
Non-Linear Editing: Non-Linear editing involves random access to any clip desired
instantly. This form of editing allows for any segment of the project to be worked on
at any time, rather than following a set order. Flexible editing of the project is
enabled, allowing for a quick and easy process which doesn’t require the need to
start all over again during any changes.
Editing has evolved over time. Linear editing techniques were employed before
digital editing was introduced and involved editing analogue video tape and placing
frames together to make a sequence. Traditional editing techniques e.g. tape-to-tape
were simple, inexpensive, quick and easy, but over time new techniques were
adopted until linear editing became obsolete in films. Non-Linear editing became the
dominant form of editing and the new techniques that came with it were almost
impossible to ignore. A whole new world of possibilities was opened up. Non-Linear
editing computers became available, along with new methods which allowed any
frame in a digital video clip to be accessed.
Pros of Linear Editing: It is simple and inexpensive. There are hardly any
complications regarding things like hardware conflicts. It is quicker and easier than
non-linear editing and it is able to increase knowledge and versatility of those who
use it.
Cons of Linear Editing: It is impossible to change or delete scenes from a tape
without having to redo the whole thing, meaning there would be no going back from
any mistakes. Different clips cannot be too long or too short together or the image
quality will degrade.
Pros of Non-Linear Editing: Any frames or scenes can be accessed at any time.
The original footage will remain intact while being edited and flexibility of editing is
offered. Scenes can be edited without requiring the need to redo the entire project
and it is possible to edit the quality of the video quickly.
Cons of Non-Linear Editing: The only disadvantage to non-linear editing is the cost
of the digital computers and hardware required for this form of editing. It is very high
(£5,000- £10,000), and much higher for systems that approach broadcast quality.
Equipment/ Technology/Software
Linear Editing: Linear Editing involved editing analogue video tape and cutting and
sticking frames together. The equipment required for linear editing consisted mainly
of two VCRs, two video monitors, and connecting cables. Analogue video tapes will
have also been required, some of which to be edited and one to edit onto (which
would become the master tape). During an earlier time period, technology was not as
advanced as it is today. Images and sound were often captured using devices such
as video cameras or tapeless camcorders and the content recorded was required to

4. be accessed sequentially, an example of linear editing. Linear editing was replaced
with video editing software. Adding, deleting, or replacing segments would have been
very complicated with linear editing, where everything needed to be assembled in the
right order the first time.
Non-Linear Editing: Non-linear Editing performs non-destructive and quick and easy
techniques to edit source material using different systems. Files on video servers and
hard drives are used instead of recordings on reels and tapes, the latter of which was
used in earlier time periods. Video servers and hard disks are the equipment
required to access digital clips and video frames. Improvements in technology,
especially the introduction of computerized systems during the 1960’s, allowed for
non-linear editing systems to replace linear editing techniques. Video editing
software was adopted and this allowed for systems that had the ability to digitally
record and edit simultaneously.
Other Editing Methods
Tape to Tape: Linear Editing was the original method of editing electronic video
tapes. In this method, video was selectively copied from one tape to another in the
correct order (a linear fashion). Only the sections desired to be kept were recorded,
and if any mistakes were made or the editor changed their mind, there was no going
back.
Digital/Computer: Video footage is edited using specialized software following its
capture onto a computer hard drive. The finished product is recorded back to either
tape or an optical disk. Non-Linear editing is a flexible method where changes can be
made to sections of a video without having to edit in a linear fashion.
Purposes of Editing
Various editing techniques are able to control rhythmic succession, change
dimensions of time, and alter the creation of space to create meaning and
understanding.
Time: Editing is able to manipulate the perceived flow of time. Time can be
presented in different ways in a film or a video. It can be expanded e.g. slow-motion
to increase the length of certain scenes, especially fight scenes. Time can also be
compressed to fit the acceptable duration of a movie. For example, a story taking
place over months or years can be compressed so it fits into only several hours of
film time. When the time in a video is exactly the same as the time it was recorded in,
it is known as real time.
Space: Editing is able to create a logical and believable space between characters
and objects. The 180-degree rule and the 30-degree rule are good examples of this.
In the 180-degree rule, the cameras do not cross the line of editing, allowing for
space between the cameras and the characters. This technique also allows for an
expansion of the frame. The camera is required to be kept on one side of the action.
The 30-degree rule is used to create continuity between shots by ensuring the
camera moves at least 30 degrees between shots of the same subject.

5. Rhythm: Editing is also able to alter the length of shots to change the emotional
responses of the viewers. This is where pacing occurs. It can be either rapid or slow;
the former of which suggests intensity and excitement, and the latter of which is
relaxing. In sequences of film, rhythm requires that length of shots should always
vary.
Arrival of a Train at La Ciotat: This film uses continuity editing, meaning the flow of
action goes uninterrupted. This short film uses real time; there is no slow or
accelerated motion, the film time is exactly the same as the time it was initially
recorded in. The audience is provided with a view of all the space in which the action
is occurring, including the oncoming train, the platform, and the many people. This is
an establishing shot and it lasts for the entirety of the video, making it difficult for the
audience to become confused when the entire scene is presented to them in one
shot. There are no varying shots within the film which would have provided rhythm; it
is only made up of a single shot.
The India Rubber Head: This film appears to use temporal continuity, meaning the
characters and objects within do not change positions during time. Nothing appears
to move around on its own. This is a two minute-long video which is shown to have
had the time within it compressed to fit an appropriate duration. The characters move
around quickly and their movements are rapid. It is clear that the producers
accelerated the recorded footage. Just like “Arrival of a Train at La Ciotat”, this film
maintains a single, establishing shot that provides a view of all the space to the
audience. All the story space is presented before them. There are no varying shots
within the film which could evoke emotion within the audience.
Charlie Brooker’s Screenwipe:RealityTV Editing: This five minute-clip follows
spatial continuity. For example, in the living room sequence, nothing seems to move
around between shots e.g. the sofas or objects on tables e.g. bottles. This film uses
real time (the time in the film is the same as the time it was recorded in), with some
areas of compressed time. All individual scenes were clearly edited together in a
manner so that the appropriate time duration would have been met. This film uses
many different shots other than one establishing shot, which is different from the
aforementioned two videos. There are several establishing shots which provide the
audience with a view of the entire space in the scene, close-ups, long shots, medium
shots, three shots, and tracking shots.
This video has clearly followed both the 180 degree rule and the 30 degree rule,
which provides different shots and distance between cameras and characters. The
film has lots of rhythm within it; many of the shots and transitions have been edited to
change the emotional responses of the audience. There is a mixture of both rapid
transitions and slow transitions between shots, which do well to evoke different
reactions within the audience. Rapid shots suggest excitement, whereas slow shots
appear relaxing.
Clip Analysis 1
Classic Continuity Techniques
The following techniques feature in the duel scene from The Good, the Bad, and the
Ugly (1996).

6. Cuts: There are lots of sections in this video which feature instant transitions from
one shot to another, from start to finish. These cuts are abrupt and very common
throughout the scene. The speed of the cuts increases to build tension and suspense
between the characters towards the end. The increased speed could also evoke
adrenaline within the audience. Cuts are also useful for conveying the skill of the
producers to the audience, as well as
Cut-in: There are many cut-ins throughout the scene that are used to emphasize
something happening to a character. A good example of this is the fatality of one of
the characters who is shot and hits the ground. Another example is the transition of a
medium long shot of one of the characters to a close up to show his determined
expression. A cut-in immediately switches to a point of focus, enabling the
importance of a plot device to be shown. At one point, there is a cut-in on a rock to
convey its importance to the audience.
Match on Action: In this video, the shots are edited in and around the action
sequences. One shot cuts to another shot, and each one portrays the exact same
actions of the subject(s), creating a sense of continuity throughout the video which
draws the attention of the viewer. An example of this in the video is the shot of
characters readying their guns; each shown individually.
Eye-Line Match: This scene also features areas with two different shots (one
showing a character glancing to the side, and another showing what he is looking at)
which also creates a sense of continuity. This technique does well to depict the levels
of concern for each character during the tense buildup which creates suspense for
the audience. Extreme close-ups are used to depict the expressions of the
characters. This technique is also useful for showing a character’s reaction to
something.
Shot-Reverse-Shot: This video features cutaways from one shot to another, and
then back again. This technique is often used to show conversations between
characters in films, where one character is shown looking at a second character, and
then the second character is shown looking at the first. It is easily assumed that the
characters in this scene are looking at each other. Action and tension is built up
towards the end as cuts between characters increase, and shoulder shots and high
angle shots are used to create suspense.
180 Degree Rule: The 180-degree-rule is a guideline regarding action taking place
behind an imaginary line which the cameras do not cross. The characters in this
scene would have been connected by an imaginary line which had cameras
positioned on one side of it. The 180-degree-rule is essential for continuity editing,
and breaking the line of action can result in disorientation within the audience. An
example of the 180-degree-rule in the fight scene is the long wide shot showing all
three characters and the whole circle to create suspense; but this was only shot from
one direction, suggesting that the producers obeyed the 180-degree-rule.
30 Degree Rule: The 30-degree-rule is another editing guideline in filmmaking. The
camera should move so that separate shots of the same subject differ by at least 30
degrees each time they are shown to avoid jump cuts. This scene does follow the 30-
degree-rule as each shot is shown to differ from the previous one, and cutting rates
change dramatically. If this scene didn’t follow the rule, more attention would have
been paid on the filming techniques rather than the action that was taking place.

7. Clip Analysis 2
Alternative Editing Style Techniques
The following alternative editing techniques appear in The Shining (1980),
Breathless (1960), and the Pasadena Fight Scene from Kill Bill: Volume 1 (2003).
Limited Use of Close-Ups: The scene from The Shining only uses wide long shots
and doesn’t switch to focus on a particular facial expression or object. When a
medium shot suddenly cuts to an extreme-close up to focus on something, visual
juxtaposition is created with the two shots next to each other immediately, which
could shock the audience. Without use of close-ups, audiences are likely to become
confused with the identity of the characters. In this scene, audiences may assume
both characters are the same person.
Breaking the 180 Degree Rule: The Shining clip purposefully disobeys the 180-
degree-rule, which is one of the basic guidelines in continuity editing. In the
bathroom, the two characters are shown from both directions in two long wide shots,
proving that the producers intentionally crossed the imaginary line of action in the
scene to create disorientation within the audience. Because this rule is broken, it
seems as if the two characters within the scene have switched places, and this could
confuse the audience.
Use of Red and White: The colours red and white are shown during this scene. The
bathroom has red walls and white floor and ceiling. Out of the two characters, one
wears a jacket with red on it, and the other wears a black and white suit. Because the
location and characters share the same colours, audiences might assume that the
characters are part of the hotel they are staying in, or that the hotel possesses
equivalent importance to the characters in the story. These colours also hint at the
struggle between good and evil within the characters; white is a positive colour and
red is a negative colour.
Slow Cutting Rate: In this scene, there is also use of slow cutting rates around the
action taking place. This is another guideline of continuity editing that is disobeyed.
Audiences are used to fast-paced editing in films which is essential for action
sequences, but in this scene, the cutting rates are slow. This could make the
audience feel uncomfortable because of what they are used to seeing in movies
today.
Jump Cuts: In the car scene from Breathless, there are many jump cuts (with the
first occurring at 0:14). At this particular point of the video, the subject (someone in
the passenger seat) appears to ‘jump’ abruptly. This could create meaning as it
communicates the passing of time to the audience and suggests the length of the
character’s journey. A jump cut is the result of two shots of the same subject taken
with the camera position varying only slightly, resulting in a ‘jarring’ effect which could
confuse audiences. Continuity editing uses a guideline called the 30-degree-rule to
avoid jump cuts, which the producers of Breathless clearly didn’t follow. Shots are cut
together in such a way that there is a sense of discontinuity which could ruin the
overall clip and affect the way audiences perceive the passing of time within it.
Superimposition: Superimposition is the placement of an image or video clip on top
of an already-existent image or video clip. During the Pasadena Fight Sequence in
Kill Bill: Volume 1, there is superimposition, with a video clip placed upon the
extreme-close up shot of one of the character’s faces to show her past thoughts,
right before she attacks the other character. This secondary video clip is highlighted

8. in orange, which is associated with determination. This highlights the thoughts and
feelings of the character. The audience is presented lots of information through this
method of superimposition; it is obvious that the woman desires revenge. Because
of this short sequence, audiences do not need to be informed about the woman’s
goals in the dialogue of this film as they are displayed to them at the start.