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1. Animation Theory
Pro-Forma
Robbie Hickman

2. How animation works
Animation is the technique of placing a sequence of images, usually drawings
or positions of puppets or models each displaying slight movements, together
in order to create continuous motion and shape change illusion when the film
is shown in a sequence.
Phenakistoscope
Several images displaying different movements are mounted on a disk which is spun.
The brain is tricked into thinking one image is moving.
Zoetrope
Similar to a Phenokistoscope, but with a circular device.
Zoopraxiscope
A series of photographs taken in rapid succession are mounted on a rotating glass disk.
The image is projected by light shown through the disk.

3. How animation works
Cinematograph
A film is moved through a camera by a cameraman cranking a handle. In each second of
film 24 images are taken.
Cel Animation
Short for celluloid animation. Moving elements of animation are separated onto many
different transparent sheets which are placed on top of each other to give the appearance
of movement.
CGI
Computer Generated Image. Often 3D animation created using computers or macs.
Rotoscoping
After a live action film is made, the scenes are painted over, turning it into an animation.
Performance Capture
In a room known as The Volume, an actor’s movements are recorded on a computer and
used as animation in live action films. Often used in filmmaking and video games.

4. How has animation evolved
Animation has changed drastically over time. From the invention of the Phenakistoscope by
Joseph Plateau in 1832 to the use of CGI and 2D and 3D animation in television, film, interactive
media, and digital games today. These changes were influenced by new ideas and inventions as
well as the development of the ‘Suspension of Disbelief’ and how the ‘Persistence of vision with
regard to moving objects’ was disproved.
Such inventions include:
Vitascope, a machine which had an influence on all sub-sequent projectors.
Cut-out animation, an innovative, time saving technique.
The first computer generated facial animation, created by Fred Parke.
The use and growth of technology through the years played a vital part as it facilitated the
development of animation. The role of technology was important because it affected how certain
individuals managed to come up with innovative new ways to make films.

5. Animation in Digital Games
In Digital Games, animation is used primarily to portray characters, environments, and props to provide a sense
of realism, thus creating a pleasurable experience for the player. Some games such as Call of Duty and Grand
Theft Auto rely on motion capture to create realistic looking characters, as well as voice acting. Motion capture
is the process of recording the movement of objects or people; in video games, it is used mostly for recording
actions of human actors , and then using that information to animate digital character models in 2D or 3D
computer animation. Voice acting is the process of doing voice-overs and providing voices for animated
characters in various works.
Other games, mainly for smaller devices such as IPod Touch or Nintendo DS, only rely on 2D animation made
using the Adobe Flash Program. This particular software is freeware, meaning it is available for anyone to use,
free of charge. This can be considered a disadvantage for smaller devices as many individuals nowadays prefer
better graphics e.g. next gen rather than graphics produced by old and overused programs. Also, 3D animation
is more effective as it realistically portrays characters, locations, and events. The graphics of 3D video games
show how much animation has improved since the development of 2D animation in games.

6. Animation in TV Programmes
In some television programmes, such as The Simpsons and Family Guy, animation is used entirely to portray
certain types of comedy, such as animals talking or characters performing stunts which couldn’t be filmed in
live action. This can be considered an advantage to animation instead of live action. Also, animated
programmes can be fun to watch. They are entertaining and do well to convey messages and information to the
audience in the form of something enjoyable and memorable. They leave a lasting impression.
However, there are disadvantages. The process of writing, drawing, and animating every aspect of every
episode is very time consuming and filming a live action TV programme seems much easier and much quicker.
For example, this sort of programme doesn’t require countless drawings and images like animated programmes
do. For each episode of The Simpsons, for example, hundreds of thousands of images would need to be drawn
and taken, a very difficult and painfully time-consuming process.

7. Animation in Film
• Animation is used in a wide range of different movies, and in many different ways. Some films are fully
animated, whereas others utilize animation to enhance their traditionally-conceived special effects at
work. In fact,
• CGI: CGI (Stands for computer-generated image) is a very sophisticated method of animation where
computer graphics are applied to create images which are impossible to act out in reality.
• CG: CG (Stands for computer graphics) is a technique involving the creation of images via computer, often
used to revolutionize graphics in various movies.
• Stop Motion: Stop Motion is a technique to make a physically manipulated object appear to move on its
own.
• Photo-Realistic Animation: Photo-Realistic Animation is an animation technique which uses advanced
rendering that mimics various aspects (skin, plants, clouds, etc.) in detail to resemble real life.
• Over the years, the creation of animation has developed as a form of filmmaking, but there are certain
disadvantages e.g. animation is very time consuming, labour intensive and expensive. Unlike live action
films, animated films are developed beyond the synopsis stage via the storyboard format.

8. Animation in Interactive Media
• Interactive Media includes:
• Social Networking Sites e.g. Facebook or Twitter.
• Websites that use graphics and text.
• Video Games
• TV Shows which require audience participation e.g. The X Factor/I’m a Celebrity Get Me Out Of Here.
• Animation techniques do make an appearance in some aspects of interactive media. For example, pages
for websites might feature subtle moving images to attract the eye of the viewer and invite them to look
at a particular website. Pictures of water moving in a pool or trees in the breeze are good examples of
moving images.
• Video games typically use animation to provide players with dedicated graphics and entertainment. This
media sector is another type of interactive media , as players respond to the visual and sound cues on
the screen via use of controllers.
• TV shows which are interactive also feature animations in their title sequences e.g. I’m a Celebrity: Get
Me Out Of Here features a squadron of CGI helicopters which carry enormous 3D letters and lower them
amongst the jungle foliage in a layout similar to that of the Hollywood sign.

9. Willis O’Brien
Willis O’Brien is a special effects artist famous for his role as animator of the
original King Kong movie. He pioneered the technique of stop motion
animation, thus making him the first individual to explore that particular
style. He had made a significant impact in the development of animation
through the years, always considering the possibilities of producing cartoon
style animation with three-dimensional puppet figures.
He was formerly a sculptor and newspaper cartoonist, with the latter likely
inspiring him to begin his career in animation.
He was also the winner of the first Oscar, for special effects and for the
animation in Mighty Joe Young (1935).

10. Nick Park
Nick Park is a filmmaker of stop motion animation, famous for his role as
creator and animator of Academy Award Winning films Wallace and Gromit
and Shaun The Sheep. In 1985, he joined the staff of Aardman Animations Ltd,
where he initially worked as an animator for commercial products. It was
during this occupation that he had finally completed the first Wallace and
Gromit film, A Grand Day Out.
Aardman Animations, the British animation studio, is famous for films made
using stop-motion clay animation techniques, which were used by Park to
create the Plasticine characters Wallace and Gromit.

11. Evaluation of animator’s styles
Willis O’Brien- Rear Projection
• Rear Projection is a technique used mainly in cinemas where the projector is placed behind the screen,
facing the audience and allowing the screen technology to control the light path.
• A front-projection television uses a projector that is placed in front of the screen. The setup of a rear-
projection television is the opposite to a front-projection television. The projector is contained inside the
television and projects the image from behind the screen.
• Advantages- Rear Projection screen sizes exceed the largest of flat panel screens. The televisions produce
an excellent picture and durability with rear projection is high, usually lasting up to 15-20 years of normal
use. Most rear projection televisions aren’t susceptible to burn-in.
• Disadvantages- The biggest distraction to rear projection televisions is lamp replacement which can be
expensive. The screens are generally large, heavy and occupy a lot of floor space. The latter can be an
issue.
Nick Park- Claymation
• Claymation is a type of animation where figures made of a malleable material are animated.
• Advantages- With Claymation, the material can be contracted and/or expanded. Characters can be
morphed together and almost anything can be created. There is a 3D effect.
• Disadvantages- Claymation can be time-consuming and creating detailed characters is difficult.

12. Evaluation of animator’s styles (CONT.)
• Jan Švankmajer- Pixilation
• Pixilation is a stop motion technique where live actors are used as a frame-by-frame subject in an
animated film, becoming stop motion-puppets. This animation technique is often used to blend live actors
with animated ones in some movies.
• The Czech animator Jan Švankmajer uses pixilation for most of his work which spans across several media
platforms. He is a self-labelled surrealist who is known for his animations and feature films. His work has
greatly influenced other animators.
• Advantages- The actors can literally be made to do most things. Live actors and animated characters can
be blended together.
• Disadvantages- People are limited to the things they can make a human do or be. The animation process
is time-consuming and it is very easy to mess up the whole production if the positions aren’t accurate.
Also, the shadows of the actors won’t be the same in every shot.
• John Lasseter- CGI
• Computer-generated imagery (CGI) is the application of computer graphics to create or contribute to
images in various media sectors including printed media, video games, films, television programs,
advertisements, and videos.
• John Lasseter is an American animator, director, screenwriter, and producer. He is also the Principal
Creative Advisor for Walt Disney Imagineering and the chief creative officer at Pixar, Walt Disney
Animation Studios, and DisneyToon Studios. After being fired from Disney for promoting CGI, he worked
on the use of CGI animation at Lucasfilm. He also directed Toy Story, A Bug’s Life, Toy Story 2, Cars, and
Cars 2.
• Advantages- CGI is a lot cheaper than physical special effects and can be produced with relative ease. It
can also enhance already present physical special effects in many media sectors.
• Disadvantages- The low cost of CGI is also its downfall as lots of independent films nowadays have bad
looking CGI.

13. Evaluation of animator’s styles (CONT.)
• Tim Burton- Stop Motion
• Stop Motion is an animation technique to make a physically manipulated object or person
appear to move on its own. A particular object is moved in small increments between
individually photographed frames, creating the illusion of movement when the series of
frames is played as a continuous sequence.
• In the 1980’s, there was an increasing number of traditional stop motion feature films,
despite the advancements of computer animation at the time. Tim Burton produced The
Nightmare Before Christmas, which was one of the most widely released stop motion
features. He also directed other stop-motion films, with his first ever animated feature being
Vincent, a short, six-minute black and white stop motion film in 1982.
• Advantages- Stop motion can create cool effects and animate inanimate objects. It would
appear realistic and there is more depth of field for filming. The viewers would appreciate the
time and effort put into production.
• Disadvantages- It can be difficult to get the correct speed when playing the sequence. It is
also difficult to get a consistent image quality to make it look like a continuous video rather
than a series of images and the audio track needs to be created separately. It is difficult to
achieve a good, fluid animation, even if it is a basic one. The difficulties could lead to losing
one’s temper.