LATINVocabTitles

Chapter 4 Vocabulary
adest irr, he/she is present saepe adv, often
cürat 1, he/she cares/looks after tandem adv, at last
accëdit 3, he/she approaches amïcus n, friend (m)
pröcëdit 3, he/she goes forward lüdus n, school
surgit 3, he/she rises eös, eäs p, them (acc. pl.)
dormit 4, he/she sleeps ille, illa p, he, she
venit 4, he/she comes quod c, because
cür? adv, why? ubi c, when
diü adv, for a long time magnus, -a, -um ajd, great, big
iam adv, now, already miser, misera, miserum miserable
lentë adv, slowly multus, -a, -um adj, much, many
clämat 1, he/she shouts facit 3io, he/she makes/does
dat 1, he/she gives hortus n, garden
rogat 1, he/she asks statim adv, at once
spectat 1, he/she watches/looks at quid? p, what?
iacet 2, he/she lies (down) cum + abl. pr, with
respondet 2, he/she answers in + abl. pr, in, on
dïcit 3, he/she says per + acc. pr, through, throughout
emit 3, he/she buys nec/neque and not, nor
pönit 3, he/she places, puts
trädit 3, he/she hands over
advenit 4, he/she arrives
ambulat 1, he/she walks casa n, house, cottage
cënat 1, he/she dines cëna n, dinner
festïnat 1, he/she hurries fëmina n, woman
intrat 1, he/she enters puella n, girl
laborät 1, he/she works mox adv, soon
fessa adj, tired nön adv, not
laeta adj, happy et c, and
paräta adj, ready sed c, but
ünus, -a, -um adj, one
duo, duae, duo adj, two
trës, trës, tria adj, three
alius, alia, aliud adj, other, another
bonus, -a, -um adj, good
malus, -a, -um adj, bad
iuvat 1, he/she helps aqua n, water
laudat 1, he/she praises fäbula n, story
närrat 1, he/she tells fïlia n, daughter
parat 1, he/she prepares via n, road, way
portat 1, he/she carries ïräta adj, angry
salütat 1, he/she greets subitö adv, suddenly
vocat 1, he/she calls in pr, in, into
dëbeö, dëbëre 2, I ought, I must
doceö, docëre 2, I teach
iubeö, iubëre 2, I order
cönstituö, cönstituere 3, I decide
dïmittö, dïmittere 3, I send away
lüdö, lüdere 3, I play
scrïbö, scrïbere 3, I write
cupiö, cupere 3io, I desire, I want
eö, ïre irr, I go
exeö, exïre irr, I go out
manet 2, he/she waits terra n, earth, land
sedet 2, he/she sits cibus n, food
videt 2, he/she sees colönus n, farmer
ascendit 3, he/she climbs fïlius n, son
cadit 3, he/she falls ager n, field
currit 3, he/she runs puer n, boy, child
dücit 3, he/she leads eum p, him (acc)
inquit 3, he/she says eam p, her (acc)
mittit 3, he/she sends ad pr, to, towards
redit 3, he/she returns nam c, for
audit 4, he/she hears änxius, -a, -um adj, anxious
iänua n, door tü you
littera n, a letter të (acc) you
domus n, home celeriter adv, quickly
domum n, (to) home dïligenter adv, carefully, hard
magister n, master iterum adv, again
ego p, I prope + acc pr, near
më p, (acc) me itaque c, and so
nec/neque... nec/neque c, neither...nor
cëterï, cëterae, cëtera adj, the others, the rest
meus, -a, -um adj, my
tuus, -a, -um adj, your
convocö, convocäre 1, I call together
nävigö, nävigäre 1, I sail
oppugnö, oppugnäre 1, I attack
pugnö, pugnäre 1, I fight
dëfendö, dëfendere 3, I defend
occïdö, occïdere 3, I kill
resistö, resistere 3, I resist
vincö, vincere 3, I conquer
capiö, capere 3io, I take
fugiö, fugere 3io, I flee
iaciö, iacere 3io, I throw
ïra, -ae nf, anger rëx, rëgis nm, king
pugna, -ae nf, fight urbs, urbis nf, city
canis, canis nc, dog fortiter adv, bravely
comes, comitis nc, comrade ä + abl pr, from
fräter, frätris nm, brother ab + abl pr, from
nävis, nävis nf, ship cärus, -a, -um adj, dear
pater, patris nm, father fortis, forte adj, brave
prïnceps, prïncipis nm, prince omnis, omne adj, all

Chapter 1/2 Sentence types, nom, and acc. cases
1 Scintilla laborät (subject, verb)
2 Horätia est puella (subject, linking verb, subjective complement)
3 Horätia fessa est (subject, subjective complement, linking verb)
The linking verb does not describe an action but simply joins the subject to the
completing word, the subjective complement: Horätia is ______.
The complement can be either a noun (puella) or an adjective (fessa).
4 puella Scintillam salütat (subject, direct object, verb)
Subject ends -a and object ends -am.
The subject case, ending in -a, is the nominative.
The object case, ending in -am, is the accusative.
Word endings need to be observed with great care, since they determine sense in Latin.
Chapter 4 Singular and plural verbs
Verbs, nouns and adjectives have differents sets of endings for singular and plural.
1st person singular 3rd person plural
1st conjugation para-t he/she prepares para-nt they prepare
2nd conjugation mone-t he/she warns mone-nt they warn
3rd conjugation regi-t he/she rules reg-unt they rule (short i changes to u before nt)
4th conjugation audi-t he/she hears audi-unt they hear (long i retained then unt)
irregular (esse) es-t he/she is su-nt they are
Chapter 3 Agreement of adjectives, verbs
Adjectives always agree with the nouns they describe; they have the same
number, case and gender.
The complement of the verb est always agrees with the subject.
Verbs always agree with the subject in number.
Chapter 4 Singular and plural nouns and adjectives
Nouns (with adjectives in agreement), endings for singular and plural:
singular plural
nominative 1st decl. (fem.) puell-a puell-ae
2nd decl. (masc.) colön-us colön-ï
puer puer-ï
accusative 1st decl. (fem.) puella-m puell-äs
2nd decl. (masc.) colön-um colön-ös
puer-um puer-ös
Note: ille (that man, he) and illa (that woman, she) are commonly used to
indicate a change of subject: Scintilla Horätiam vocat; illa (Horätia) accëdit.
Chapter 3 Noun declensions, nom. and acc. cases
Latin nouns are divided into classes, called declensions.
1st declension nouns, with nominative ending -a, follow this pattern:
nominative (subject) puell-a
accusative (object) puell-am
2nd declension nouns, with nominative ending -us, follow this pattern:
nominative (subject) colön-us pu-er ag-er
accusative (object) colön-um puer-um agr-um
Notice that there are two types of nouns ending -er; one type keeps the e of
the nominative in the other cases, e.g., puer, puer-um; the other drops it,
e.g., ager, agr-um.
Chapter 5 Verbs, present tense, all persons
Latin changes the verb endings to show which person is acting. The endings
are the same for all types of verbs (with the noted irregularities):
singular 1 -ö I plural 1 -mus we
singular 2 -s you plural 2 -tis you (all)
singular 3 -t he/she plural 3 -nt they
2nd conjugation follows this template, endings after the stem -e
1st conjugation varies in 1s, stem -a is omitted
3rd conjugation is irreg.; adds i at 2s, 3s, 1p, 2p; adds u at 3p
4th conjugation is irreg.; adds u at 3p
sum, esse: sum, e-s, es-t, su-mus, es-tis, su-nt
Chapter 3 Verb forms
Latin verbs fall into four classes called conjugations, which differ in the end-
ings of their stems:
1st conjugation stems in -a, e.g., par-ö, para-t, parä-re
2nd conjugation stems in -e, e.g., mone-ö, mone-t, monë-re
3rd conjugation stems in consonants, e.g., reg-ö, reg-it, rege-re
4th conjugation stems in -i, e.g., audi-ö, audi-t, audï-re
Working ahead from Chapter 4; ignoring irregular and 3io conjugations here.
Chapter 5 Ablative case
Ablative case is used now only after certain prepositions: in agrö, a casä.
1st declension 2nd declension
puell-a colön-us ager
abl. singular puell-ä colön-ö agr-ö
abl. plural puell-ïs colön-ïs agr-ïs
Note that in the nominative singular of the 1st decl. -a is short, in the
ablative it is long. 1st decl. nouns ending with long -ä are in the ablative.
Sentence diagrams:
Quintus in agrö laborät (subj, prep, abl, verb)
Flaccus Argum in agrum dücit (subj, direct obj, prep, acc, verb)
Chapter 3 Gender
Nearly all nouns of 1st decl. with nom. ending -a are feminine.
All nouns of 2nd decl. with nom. ending -us and -er are masculine.
Many nouns of 2nd decl. with nom. and acc. endings of -um are neuter.
Adjectives have masculine, feminine and neuter endings:
masc. fem. neuter
magn-us magn-a magn-um big
This is abbreviated to magn-us, -a, -um.
The case endings for the masculine are the same as for colön-us.
The case endings for the feminine are the same as for puell-a.
The case endings for the neuter are the same as for bell-um.
Chapter 5 Prepositions
Words like into, in, from which together with a noun expand action of the verb:
in casam festïnat (where she hurries); in agrö laborät (where he labors)
Prepositions expressing motion towards are followed by the accusative:
in agrum, ad agrum
Prepositions expressing place where and motion from are followed by the
ablative: in agrö, ab agrö
cum takes the ablative; cum puellä
in + acc = into ---> e, ex + abl = out of --->
in + abl = in
ad + acc = to ---> ä, ab + abl = from --->

Chapter 6/7 Case endings
nominative accusative ablative vocative
1df singular puell-a puell-am puell-ä puell-a
1df plural puell-ae puell-äs puell-ïs puell-ae
2dm singular puer puer-um puer-ö puer
2dm plural puer-ï puer-ös puer-ïs puer-ï
2dm singular colön-us colön-um colön-ö colön-e
2dm plural colön-ï colön-ös colön-ïs colön-ï
2dn singular bell-um bell-um bell-ö bell-um
2dn plural bell-a bell-a bell-ïs bell-a
3dmf singular rëx rëg-em rëg-e rëx
3dmf plural rëg-ës rëg-ës rëg-ibus rëg-ës
2ds 3ds can vary am äs um ös em ës ä ïs ö ïs e ibus nom except 2ds-us
Chapter 7 3rd declension
1st declension nominative -a, -ae, accusative -am, -äs, ablative -ä, ïs.
2nd declension nominative -us/-er, -ï, accusative -um, -ös, ablative -ö, ïs.
3rd declension nominative (varies), accusative -em, -ës, ablative -e, ibus.
The endings are added to the noun stem. For example, rëx, king, stem rëg-:
singular plural
nominative rëx rëg-ës
accusative rëg-em rëg-ës
ablative rëg-e rëg-ibus
Chapter 6 Infinitives
1v parö, parä-re, to prepare 3v regö, reg-ere, to prepare
2v moneö, monë-re, to warn 4v audiö, audï-re, to prepare
The infinitive is used, as in English, with verbs such as:
cupiö, I desire to, want to: lüdere cupimus, We want to play.
dëbeö, I ought to, I must: laböräre dëbëtis, You ought to work.
iubeö, I order X to: magister puerös iubet laböräre,
The master orders the boys to work.
cönstituö, I decide to: magister cönstituit fäbulam närräre,
The master decides to tell a story.
Complimentary infinitives: Infinitve completes activity suggested by s/pl verb.
1 In the 3rd declension the vocative is always the same as the nominative.
2 The endings are the same for the nominative and accusative plural.
3 The 3rd declension contains masculine, feminine and neuter nouns, e.g.
rëx, king, is masculine; navïs, ship, is feminine; mare, sea, is neuter..
Some 3rd decl. nouns have nominatives ending in -er, e.g., pater, stem patr-:
singular plural
nominative pater patr-ës
accusative patr-em patr-ës
ablative patr-e patr-ibus
So also mäter and fräter.
Chapter 6 3iö–3rd conj. -iö verbs
Besides the four regular conjugations there is a small class of verbs ending in
-iö which in some forms behave like 3v, and like 4v in others, e.g.,
capi-ö, cap-ere, I take audi-ö, audï-re, I hear
cap-is audï-s
cap-it audi-t
cap-imus audï-mus
cap-itis audï-tis
capi-unt audi-unt
Ending in italic are like those of reg-ö. Other verbs in this conjugatuion are
cupiö, I want, desire, and faciö, I do, make.
Some 3rd decl. nouns have stems in -i, e.g., nävis, ship, stem nävi-:
singular plural
nominative näv-is näv-ës
accusative näv-em näv-ës
ablative näv-e näv-ibus
Nearly all 3rd decl. nouns in -i decline like the nouns with consonant stems in
the nominative, accusative and ablative.
Chapter 6 The vocative case
New case, the vocative, used when calling or addressing someone. This case
mimics the nominative except in 2ds nouns ending in -us or -ius.
Quïnt-us Quïnt-e
colön-us colön-e
fïl-ius fïl-ï.
So, quid facis, Quïnte? But quid facis, Horätia?, quid facitis, puerï?
We sometimes find the interjection “ö” with the vocative:
e.g., quid facis, ö fïlï?
Chapter 7 3rd declension adjectives
Adjectives with 3rd declension endings have the same case endings for masculine and
feminine. Most adjectives have stems in -i and ablative -ï (not -e), e.g., omn-is (all):
singular plural
nominative omn-is omn-ës
accusative omn-em omn-ës
ablative omn-ï omn-ibus
The ablative of most 3rd decl. nouns ends in -ë; of 3rd decl adjectives ends in -ï.
The ending of the adjective is not always the same as that of the noun with which
it agrees in case and number, e.g.: bon-us can-is, bon-um can-em, bon-ö can-e,
omn-ës fëmin-ae, omn-ës fëmin-as, omn-ibus fëmin-ïs.
In these examples the endings differ since bon-us is 2nd decl. in form but can-is is 3rd
decl. omn-ës is 3d, fëmin-ae is 1d.
Chapter 6 Questions
Questions in Latin are not unlike questions in English. They are usually intro-
duced by an interrogative word such as:
cür? why? quömodo? how? ubi? where? (adverbs);
quis? who? quid? what? (pronouns); quantus? how big? (adjective).
Sometime the interrogative particles -ne (atached to the first word of the sen-
tence) or nönne (used in questions expecting the answer “yes”) are used, e.g.,
venïsne ad lüdum? Are you coming to school?
nönne ad lüdum venïs? Aren’t you coming to school or?
You are coming to school aren’t you?
Chapter 7 Irregular verbs
Irregular verbs are verbs which do not follow the usual pattterns.
pos-sum, posse, I am able to, I can eö, ï-re, I go
pot-es ïs
pot-est it
pos-sumus ïmus
pot-estis ïtis
pos-sunt eunt
pos-sum was originally pot-sum; where pot- is follwed by s it becomes pos-.
The stem of eö is i-; all forms of the verb start i- except for eö and eunt.)
Note the following: in-eö, I go into: ab-eö, I go from, go away; ad-eö, I go to,
approach; red-eö, I go back, return.

possum, posse irr, I can, I am able
expectö, -äre 1, I wait for
servö, -äre 1, I save
timeö, -ëre 2, I fear, I am afraid
reddö, -ere 3, I return, give back
relinquö, -ere 3, I leave behind
vertö, -ere 3, I turn
coniciö, -ere 3io, I hurl
circum + acc. pr, round
ë/ex + abl. pr, out, from
hasta, -ae nf, spear
porta, -ae nf, gate
mürus, -ï nm, wall
mäter, mätris nf, mother
mors, mortis nf, death
bene adv, well
hïc adv, here
hüc adv, (to) here, hither
-que conj, and
mortuus, -a, -um adj, dead
sölus, -a, -um adj, alone
territus, -a, -um adj, terrified
incolumnis, incolumne
adj, safe, unharmed
gaudeö, -ëre 2, I rejoice
habeö, -ëre 2, I have
moneö, -ëre 2, I warn, advise
taceö, -ëre 2, I am silent
bibö, -ere 3, I drink
cönscendö, -ere 3, I board (a ship)
accipiö, -ere 3io, I receive
conveniö, -ïre 4, I come together, meet
ïnsula, -ae nf, island
equus, equï nm, horse
vir, virï nm, man
nox, noctis nf, night
labor, laböris nm, work, hardship,
suffering
uxor, uxöris nf, wife
novus, -a, -um adj, new
parvus, -a, -um adj, small
paucï, -ae, -a adj, few
tacitus, -a, -um adj, silent
tötus, -a, -um adj, whole
ingëns, ingentis adj, huge
sïc adv, thus
inter + acc. pr, among,
between
Chapter 8 Imperatives
Imperatives are the forms of the verb used in giving orders:
ad agrum festïnä hurry to the field!
in casä manë stay in the house!
magistrum audï listen to the master!
Orders may be given to one or more persons in singular and plural forms:
infinitive 1 paräre 2 monëre 3 regere 3io capere 4 audïre
imperative s parä prepare! monë warn! rege rule! cape take! audï hear!
imperative pl paräte monëte regite capite audite
Prohibitions–don’t!–are expressed by nölï (s), nölïte (pl) + infinitive:
nölï manëre, Horätia Don’t stay, Horatia.
nölïte clämäre, puerï Don’t shout, boys.
Chapter 9 The genitive case (= of)
puell-ae mäter the mother of the girl or the girl’s mother
puer-ï pater the father of the boy or the boy’s father.
The endings of the genitive case for the three declensions are:
1st declension 2nd declension
singular puell-ae of the girl/the girl’s colön-ï of the farmer/the farmer’s
plural puell-ärum the girls’ colön-örum ther farmers’
3rd declension cons. stems i- stems
singular rëg-is of the king/the king’s näv-is of the ship/the ship’s
plural rëg-um the kings’ näv-ium the ships’
Note that i- stems keep the i in the genitive plural.
Chapter 8 Prepositions continued
Revise the prepositions we have met so far:
Followed by the accusative:
ad to, towards; in into, onto;
per through; circum round;
prope near
Followed by the ablative:
ä/ab from (ä before consonants, ab before vowels, e.g. ä casä, ab agrö);
ë/ex out of, from (ë before consonants, ex before vowels);
in in, on cum with;
Chapter 9 The genitive case (more)
Memento:
Useful tip: if you remove the genitive ending from 3rd declension nouns you
are left with the stem, e.g. rëg-is, stem rëg-; comit-is, stem comit-.
The noun in the genitive usually depends on another noun, the genitive +
noun forming one phrase.
As in English, it may come before or after the noun it belongs to, e.g. colönï
ager = ager colönï (the farmer’s field = the field of the farmer).
Chapter 8 Compound verbs
Prepositions can be put before verbs to form one word;
such verbs are called compound verbs, e.g.
mittö I send: immittö (= in-mittö) I send into; ëmittö I send out.
dücö I lead: addücö I lead to; ëdücö I lead out; indücö I lead into.
Note also the prefix re- (red- before vowels); it means ‘back’, e.g.
re-mittö I send back, re-vocö I call back,
re-dücö I lead back, red-eö I go back, return.
The prefix con- means ‘together’, e.g.
convocö I call together, conveniö I come together
(it can also be used to strengthen the meaning of the verb, e.g. iaciö I throw, coniciö I hurl).
Note –que = ‘and’, e.g. mäter paterque mother and father;
–que is tacked onto the second of two words or phrases of a pair:
Chapter 9 The genitive case (more)
The possessive gentitive: The commonest use of the genitive case is to express
possession, e.g. patris ager father’s field = the field belonging to father.
The partitive gentitive: These two phrases, multï Tröiänörum, paucae
fëminärum, illustrate a different use of the genitive, called the partitive
genitive, referring to parts of a greater whole; this also will be translated ‘of’.)
nominative genitive accusative ablative vocative
1df s -a -ae -am -ä -a
1df p -ae -ärum -äs -ïs -ae
2dm s -us/-er -ï -um -ö -e/-er
2dm p -ï -örum -ös -ïs -ï
2dn s -um -ï -um -ö -um
2dn p -a -örum -a -ïs -a
3dmf s (var) -is -em -e/-ï (var)
3dmf p -ës -(i)um -ës -ibus -ës
3dn s (var) -is (nom) -e/-ï (var)
3dn p -a/ia -(i)um -a/ia -ibus -a/ia
2ds 3ds can vary ae ärum ï örum is um am äs um ös em ës ä ïs ö ïs e ibus nom except 2ds-us
Chapter 9 Adverbs
Adverbs are usually attached to verbs and tell you how the action of the verb is performed:
We are walking slowly lentë ambulämus.
Adverbs never change their form.
Many adverbs are formed from adjectives; from bonus type adjectives, changing -us to -e:
lent-us slow lent-ë slowly mal-us bad mal-e badly (NB bon-us good but ben-e well).
3rd declension adjectives usually form adverbs by adding -ter to the stem:
fortis brave fortiter bravely celer quick celeriter quickly.
There are many adverbs which are not formed from adjectives, such as:
diü for a long time mox soon vix scarcely umquam ever numquam never
subitö suddenly iam now, already tandem at last semper always
hüc hither, (to) here cür? why? quandö? when?

Chapter 10 Neuter nouns
Remember that in Latin there are a number of neuter nouns, i.e. nouns that are nei-
ther masculine nor feminine. Note: 1 There are no neuter nouns of the 1st declension.
2 2nd declension neuter nouns end -um in nominative, accusative and vocative sin-
gular; -a in nominative, accusative and vocative plural. Otherwise they decline like
other 2nd declension nouns. Thus bellum (war) declines as follows:
2dn s bell-um bell-ï bell-um bell-ö bell-um
2dn p bell-a bell-örum bell-a bell-ïs bell-a
Note the following 2nd declension neuter nouns: caelum sky, heaven; imperium
order; consilium plan; periculum danger; verbum word; saxum rock.
Neuter nouns of all decl. have nom., acc. and voc. pl. ending -a: bell-a, litor-a, mari-a.
aedificö, -äre 1, I build
errö, -äre 1, I wander; I err, am wrong
imperö, -äre + dat 1, I order
stö, stäre 1, I stand
cognöscö, -ere 3, I get to know, learn, find out
occurrö, -ere + dat 3, I meet, run up against
ostendö, -ere 3, I show
succurrö, -ere + dat 3, I help, run up to help
inveniö, -ïre 4, I find, come upon, discover, invent
ferö, ferre irr, I carry, bear (ferö, fers, fert, ferimus, fertis, ferunt, fer, ferte)
(irr. imps: dic, dicite, say; duc, ducite, lead; fac, facite, make)
Chapter 10 Neuter nouns
3 3rd declension neuter nouns have various endings in the nominative, e.g. some end
-us, others -en; most 3rd declension neuter nouns have stems ending in consonants:
3dn s lïtus lïtor-is lïtus lïtor-e lïtus
3dn p lïtor-a lïtor-um lïtor-a lïtor-ibus lïtor-a
flümen, flümin-is, n. river; nömen, nömin-is, n. name; tempus, tempor-is, n. time.
A few have stems in -i with ablative -ï (not -e) and these keep i throughout the plural,
e.g. mare sea; stem mari-:
3dn-i s mare mar-is mare mar-ï mare
3dn-i p mar-ia mar-ium mar-ia mar-ibus mar-ia
Chapter 11 The dative case: indirect object
Memento: Simple rule: dative case = ‘to’ or ‘for’. The dative case is most commonly
used with verbs meaning to ‘say to’, ‘give to’, ‘show to’, e.g.: pater fïli-ö dïcit The
father says to his son; mater fïli-ae cënam dat The mother gives dinner to her
daughter; rex prïncip-ibus equum ostendit The king shows the horse to the princes.
These datives are called indirect objects:
Scintilla fäbulam fïliae närrat Scintilla tells a story to her daughter.
Who tells the story? Scintilla (subject)
What does she tell? a story (object)
Who does she tell it to? to her daughter (indirect object)
Chapter 10 Neuter adjectives
The neuter case endings of adjectives with 1st and 2nd declension endings, e.g. bon-us,
bon-a, bon-um; miser, miser-a, miser-um, are the same as those of bellum.
Most 3rd declension adjectives have stems in -i and keep the i in the ablative singular,
genitive plural, and throughout the plural of the neuter
3dmf s omnis omn-is omn-em omn-ï omnis
3dmf p omn-ës omn-ium omn-ës omn-ibus omn-ës
3dn s omn-e omn-is omn-e omn-ï omn-e
3dn p omn-ia omn-ium omn-ia omn-ibus omn-ia
Chapter 11 The dative case (more)
The dative forms of the first three declensions are:
1st puella 2nd colönus, puer 3rd rëx, nävis
singular puell-ae colön-ö, puer-ö rëg-ï, näv-ï
plural puell-ïs colön-ïs, puer-ïs rëg-ibus, näv-ibus
Note: mihi to me; tibi to you; nöbïs to us; vöbïs to you; eï to him, to her; eïs to them.
Note that English has two ways of expressing the indirect object, e.g.
1 Mother gives dinner to her children. 2 Mother gives her children dinner.
But in Latin the indirect object is always in the dative.
nominative genitive dative accusative ablative
1df s -a -ae -ae -am -ä
1df p -ae -ärum -ïs -äs -ïs
2dm s -us/-er -ï -ö -um -ö
2dm p -ï -örum -ïs -ös -ïs
2dn s -um -ï -ö -um -ö
2dn p -a -örum -ïs -a -ïs
3dmf s (var) -is -ï -em -e/-ï(adj)
3dmf p -ës -um/-ium -ibus -ës -ibus
3dn s (var) -is -ï (nom) -e/-ï
3dn p -a/-ia -um/-ium -ibus -a/-ia -ibus
2ds 3ds can vary ae ärum ï örum is um ae ïs ö ïs ï ibus am äs um ös em ës ä ïs ö ïs e ibus
Chapter 11 The dative case (more)
A number of verbs take the dative. e.g.: tibi resistö I resist you; comitibus imperö
I order my comrades; tibi persuädeö I persuade you; mihi placet it pleases me.
(resistö tibi I stand up to you; mihi placet it is pleasing to me). So also ïrätus est
tibi He is angry with you.
The dative is used with many verbs of motion. e.g.: tibi accedo I approach you; tibi
succurro I run to help you, I help you; tibi occurro I run to meet you, I meet you
Besides meaning ‘to’, expressing the indirect object, the dative case can mean ‘for’,
expressing the person concerned with anything, e.g.: fëmina cënam puerïs parat The
woman is preparing dinner for her children; mihi pröpositum est terram explöräre
It is the intention for me (i.e. it is my intention) to explore the land; mihi nömen est
Quïntus The name for me (i.e. my name) is Quintus.
habitö, -äre 1, I live, dwell
örö, -äre 1, I pray, beg
quaerö, -ere 3, I ask, seek
quiëscö, -ere 3, I rest
tollö, -ere 3, I lift, raise
prïmus, -a, -um adj, first
prïmum adv, first
vix adv, scarcely
nauta, -ae nm, sailor
silva, -ae nf, wood
unda, -ae nf, wave
caelum, -ï nn, sky, heaven
perïculum, -ï nn, danger
saxum, -ï nn, rock
verbum, -ï nn, word
clämor, clämörisnm, shout
homö, hominis nc, man, human being
lïtus, lïtoris nn, shore
mare, maris nn, sea
möns, montis nm, mountain
dë + abl pr, down from
sub + abl pr, under
nötus, -a, -um adj, known
ignötus, -a, -umadj, unknown
fäma, -ae nf, fame, report, reputation
patria, -ae nf, fatherland
rëgïna, -ae nf, queen
somnus, -ï nm, sleep
ventus, -ï nm, wind
bellum, -ï nn, war
cönsilium, -ï nn, plan
templum, -ï nn, temple
vïnum, -ï nn, wine
arma, -örum nnpl, arms, weapons
castra, -örum nnpl, camp
collis, collis nm, hill
hostis, hostis nc, enemy
nömen, nöminis nn, name
nömine nn, (idiom) by name,
called
semper adv, always
dum conj, while

animus, -ï nm, mind
deus, deï nm, god
dea, deae nf, goddess
nüntius, -ï nm, messenger, message
oculus, -ï nm, eye
imperium, -ï nn, order
amor, amöris nm, love
hiems, hiemis nf, winter
Chapter 13 Subordinate clauses
A clause is a group of words containing a verb. e.g. ‘Flaccus calls Quintus’. This clause
forms a complete sentence. ‘When Quintus enters the field...’ This group of words
forms a clause, containing the verb ‘enters’, but it is not complete. It needs another
clause to complete it: ‘When Quintus enters the field, Flaccus calls him.’
This sentence consists of two clauses:
1 When Quintus enters the field (subordinate clause) 2 Flaccus calls him (main clause)
The two clauses are joined by the conjunction (= joining word) ‘when’. The ‘when’
clause, which does not form a complete sentence, is called a ‘subordinate’ clause,
which is joined to the ‘main’ (grammatically complete) clause by the subordinating
conjunction ‘when’. You have met the following Latin subordinating conjunctions:
ubi when, quod because, dum while, sï if.
Chapter 12 Review of nouns and adjectives
You have now learned all six cases of nouns and adjectives for the first three declen-
sions. The uses of the different cases may he summarized as follows:
Nominative 1 subject of clause; 2 complement after the verb ‘to be’
Genitive = ‘of’
Dative = ‘to’ or ‘for’
Accusative 1 object of a transitive verb; 2 after some prepositions (e.g. ad, per etc.)
Ablative 1 = ‘by’, ‘with’ or ‘from’ (*these uses of the abl. without a prep. are explained in Part II)
2 used after certain prepositions, e.g. ä/ab, ë/ex, cum
Vocative used only in addressing or calling someone
Memento: Simple rule: the ablative case without a prep. can mean ‘by’, ‘with’ or ‘from’.
Chapter 13 The relative pronoun
Another word which introduces subordinate clauses is quï who, which (mas-
culine), quae who, which (feminine), quod which (neuter), e.g.
Hector, quï fortis est, Achillï resistit. Hector, who is brave, resists Achilles.
Psÿchë, quae valdë fessa est, mox dormit. Psyche, who is very tired,
soon sleeps.
Aenëäs accëdit ad templum quod in colle stat. Aeneas approaches
the temple which
stands on a hill.
Chapter 12 ‘est’ and ‘sunt’
You have been familiar with the verb esse since the begining of this course: it is
used to join subject and complement (e.g. Quïntus est laetus; Quïntus est
puer). It can also be used without a complement, meaning ‘there is’, ‘there are’:
est pulchra puella in viä There’s a beautiful girl in the road.
sunt multï canës in agrö There are many dogs in the field.
est procul in pelagö saxum spümantia conträ litora There is a rock far
off in the sea, facing the foaming shores. (Virgil, Aeneid v, 124)
In this usage est/sunt usually come first word in the sentence.
Note the imperatives of esse: es/estö (sing.), este (plural). e.g.
fortis estö, Quïnte Be brave, Quintus.
fortës este, mïlitës Be brave, soldiers.
Notice that the relative pronoun has the same gender and number as the
word it refers to; and so:
Hector (masculine) quï (masculine) ...
Psÿchë (feminine) quae (feminine) ...
templum (neuter) quod (neuter) ...
Chapter 7/10/12 Third decl. i-stem nouns
Third decl. nouns have stems in i (and therefore the i-stem endings) if:
1 For male and female nouns if
A they have the same number of syllables in the nominative and genitve or
B the gentive base ends in two consonants (urbs, urbis)
Exceptions: The Blind Family (no “I”s): mäter, mätris, f; pater, patris, m;
fräter, frätris, m; iuvenis, iuvenis, m; senex, senis, m; canis, canis, c;
volucer, volucris, m
2 Neuter if nominative endings in e, al, ar (mare, animal, exemplar)
The plural forms are very similar to the singular:
masculine plural: quï; feminine plural: quae; neuter plural: quae; and so:
Aenëäs multös hominës videt quï urbem aedificant.
Aeneas sees many men who are building a city.
Scintilla fëminäs salütat quae aquam dücunt.
Scintilla greets the women who are drawing water.
Cyclöpës multa saxa coniciunt quae nävës Tröiänörum nön contingunt.
The Cyclopes hurl many rocks which do not reach the Trojans’ ships.
amö, -äre 1, I love
dëspërö, -äre 1, I despair
placeö, -ëre + dat. 2, I please
mihi placet it pleases me, I decide
petö, -ere 3, I seek, pursue,
make for
perficiö, -ere 3io, I carry out
commötus, -a, -um adj, moved
tantus, -a, -um adj, so great
trïstis, trïste adj, sad
fëlïx, fëlïcis adj, lucky, happy
ïnfëlix, ïnfëlïcis adj, unlucky, ill-starred
etiam adv, even, also
ibi adv, there
intereä adv, meanwhile
nunc adv, now
ante + acc. pr, before
post + acc. pr, after
aut...aut conj, either...or
ëvigilö, -äre 1, I wake up
excitö, -äre 1, I rouse, awaken
invideö, -ëre + dat 2, I envy
teneö, -ëre 2, I hold
colö, -ere 3, I worship; I till
dëpönö, -ere 3, I put down
vïvö, -ere 3, I live
aura, -ae nf, breeze, air
domina, -ae nf, mistress
förma, -ae nf, shape, beauty
marïtus, -ï nm, husband
sonus, -ï nm, sound
arbor, arboris nf, tree
lüx, lücis nf, light
vöx, vöcis nf, voice
numquam adv, never
umquam adv, ever
sï conj, if
dïvïnus, -a, -um adj, divine
nüllus, -a, -um adj, no
pulcher, pulchra,
pulchrum adj, beautiful
nëmö, nëminis pc, no one
quï, quae, quod p, who, which

Chapter 14/15 1st/2nd declension endings
singular plural
male female neuter male female neuter
nom -us -a -um -ï -ae -a
gen -ï -ae -ï -örum -ärum -örum
dat -ö -ae -ö -ïs -ïs -ïs
acc -um -am -um -ös -äs -a
abl -ö -ä -ö -ïs -ïs -ïs
Note that for the demonstrative pronouns the neuter singular nominative and accusative and the
genitive and dative singular forms are irregular; the other case endings are the same as those of
bonus, -a, -um. ille is more emphatic than is, meaning 'that over there'. As we have seen, it is often
used to indicate a change of subject.
Chapter 14 Personal pronouns
nominative genitive dative accusative ablative
singular ego I meï of me mihi to/for me më me më by me
plural nös we nostrï of us nöbïs to/for us nös us nöbïs by us
singular tü you tuï of you tibi to/for you të you të by you
plural vös you vestrï of you vöbïs to/for you vös you vöbïs by you
sing/plur suï sibi së së
of him/her/themselves to/for him/her/themselves him/her/themselves by him/her/themselves
Modern English uses the same forms - ‘you’ - for singular and plural; Latin has separate forms.
së has the same forms for singular and plural.
së has no nominative since it is only used to refer back to the subject of the verb (see below).
ego, tü, nös, vös are used in the nominative only for emphasis, e.g.
ego labörö, tü lüdis I am working, you are playing.
nös festïnämus, vös lentë ambulätis We are hurrying, you are going slowly.
Chapter 14 Demonstrative pronouns
is he, ea she, id it; that. Endings prefixed by e. Bold varies from standard endings.
sing. male sing. female sing. neuter plur. male plur. female plur. neuter
nom is ea id eï eae ea
gen eius eius eius eörum eärum eörum
dat eï eï eï eïs eïs eïs
acc eum eam id eös eäs ea
abl eö eä eö eïs eïs eïs
ille he, illa she, illud it; that. Endings prefixed by ill. Bold varies from standard endings.
nom ille illa illud illï illae illa
gen illïus illïus illïus illörum illärum illörum
dat illï illï illï illïs illïs illïs
acc illum illam illud illös illäs illa
abl illö illä illö illïs illïs illïs
Chapter 14 Personal adjectives
Note the following personal adjectives:
meus, mea, meum my noster, nostra, nostrum our
tuus, tua, tuum your vester, vestra, vestrum your
suus, sua, suum* his/her own suus, sua, suum* their own
*reflexive, e.g. Crassus cupit suam glöriam augëre Crassus wants to increase his (own) glory.
puerï suös loculös ferunt The boys are carrying their (own) satchels.
For non-reflexive ‘his’, e.g. the tutor is carrying his (= the boy’s) satchel, eius (= of him) is used;
eörum (= of them) is used for ‘their’, e.g.: puerï ad lüdum festïnant; paedagögï loculös eörum
ferunt. The boys are hurrying to school; the tutors are carrying their satchels. Quïntus domum
currit; amïcus eius lentë ambulat. Quintus runs home; his friend walks slowly.
Remember: ‘his’ in English could refer either to the subject to the sentence or to someone else; but
Latin uses suus if it refers to the subject, eius if it refers to someone else.
Chapter 15 Irregular verbs
Learn these verbs: volö I wish, I am willing, and nölö I am unwilling, I refuse:
volö I wish nölö I am unwilling
vïs you wish nön vïs you are unwilling
vult he/she wishes nön vult he/she is unwilling
volumus we wish nölumus we are unwilling
vultis you wish nön vultis you are unwilling
volunt they wish nölunt they are unwilling
infinitive velle nölle
imperatives: singular nölï
plural nölïte
Note that volö has no imperatives. nölï, nölïte are used in prohibitions, as we have seen (chap. 8).
Irregular imperatives: Note the following (the irregular forms are in bold type):
dïco: dïc, dïcite; dücö: düc, dücite; ferö: fer, ferte; faciö: fac, facite
Chapter 14 Personal pronouns
Personal pronouns can he used reflexively, i.e. referring back to the subject of the verb, e.g.
ego më lavö I wash myself je me lave
tü të laväs you wash yourself tu te laves
ille së lavat he washes himself il se lave
nös nös lavämus we wash ourselves nous nous lavons
vös vös lavätis you wash yourselves vous vous lavez
illï së lavant they wash themselves ils se lavent
Note that although Latin says më lavö (‘I wash myself), in English we can say simply ‘I wash’. So
also Scintilla së parat (‘Scintilla prepares herself), but we usually say ‘prepares’, ‘gets ready’. And
pater së vertit (‘father turns himself’), where we usually say ‘turns’.
In Latin such transitive verbs (i.e. verbs requiring an object) usually have the reflexive pronoun as
the object where English can use the verb intransitively (i.e. without any object).
Chapter 15 Demonstrative pronouns
hic, haec, hoc this (here). Endings prefixed by h. Bold varies from standard endings.
nom hic haec hoc hï hae haec
gen huïus huïus huïus hörum härum hörum
dat huic huic huic hïs hïs hïs
acc hunc hanc hoc hös häs haec
abl höc häc höc hïs hïs hïs
ipse, ipsa, ipsum self (emphasizing, e.g. Flaccus ipse Flaccus himself; Horätia ipsa Horatia herself;
eö ipsö tempore at that very time). Endings prefixed by ips. Bold varies from standard endings.
nom ipse ipsa ipsum ipsï ipsae ipsa
gen ipsïus ipsïus ipsïus ipsörum ipsärum ipsörum
dat ipsï ipsï ipsï ipsïs ipsïs ipsïs
acc ipsum ipsam ipsum ipsös ipsäs ipsa
abl ipsö ipsä ipsö ipsïs ipsïs ipsïs
lavö, -äre 1, I wash
exerceö, -ëre 2, I exercise, train
canö, -ere 3, I sing
contendö, -ere 3, I walk, march, hasten
gerö, -ere 3, I carry; I wear
eö adv, (to) there, thither
hodië adv, today
posteä adv, afterwards
familia, -ae nf, family, household
glöria, -ae nf, glory
locus, -ï nm, place
populus, -ï nm, people
carmen, carminis nn, song
centuriö, centuriönis nm, centurion
flös, flöris nm, flower
imperätor, imperätöris nm, general
iuvenis, iuvenis nm, young man
legiö, legiönis nf, legion
mïles, mïlitis nm, soldier
parëns, parentis nc, parent
senex, senis nm, old man
is, ea, id pro, he, she, it; that
quïdam, quaedam, quoddam
pro, a certain, a (declines like relative
pronouns quï, quae, quod + suff -dam)
temptö, -äre 1, I try
bellum gerö, -ere3, I wage war
dëdö, -ere 3, I give up, surrender
repellö, -ere 3, I drive back
circumveniö, -ïre 4, I surround
volö, velle irr, I wish, am willing
nölö, nölle irr, I am unwilling,
I refuse
haud adv, not
postrïdië adv, the next day
procul adv, far
quömodo? adv, how?
et ... et conj, both ... and
toga, -ae nf, toga
auxilium, -ï nn, help
proelium, -ï nn, battle
cïvis, cïvis nc, citizen
cönsul, cönsulis nm, consul
dictätor, dictätöris nm, dictator
moenia, moenium nnpl, walls
senätus, -us nm, senate
hic, haec, hoc adj, this
ipse, ipsa, ipsum adj, self
pauper, pauperis adj, poor
träns + acc prep, across
dë + abl prep, about
lïberö, -äre 1, I free
ëvädö, -ere 3, I escape
poscö, -ere 3, I demand
rumpö, -ere 3, I break
custödiö, -ïre 4, I guard
dignus, -a, -um adj, worthy
summus, -a, -umadj, highest, greatest
lïber, lïbera, lïberum adj, free
quoque adv, also
nön sölum ...
sed etiam adv, not only ... but also
statua, -ae nf, statue
exemplum, -ï nn, example
frümentum, -ï nn, grain, corn
praesidium, -ï nn, garrison
custös, custödis nm, guard
flümen, flüminis nn, river
foedus, foederis nn, treaty
obses, obsidis nc, hostage
päx, päcis nf, peace
virgö, virginis nf, virgin, maiden
virtüs, virtütis nf, courage, virtue

Chapter 17 Perfect tense
perfect stems 1 paräv- 2 monu- 3 rëx- 3io cëp- 4 audïv-
I prepared I warned I ruled I took I heard
paräv-ï monu-ï rëx-ï cëp-ï audïv-ï
paräv-istï monu-istï rëx-istï cëp-istï audïv-istï
paräv-it monu-it rëx-it cëp-it audïv-it
paräv-imus monu-imus rëx-imus cëp-imus audïv-imus
paräv-istis monu-istis rëx-istis cëp-istis audïv-istis
paräv-ërunt monu-ërunt rëx-ërunt cëp-ërunt audïv-ërunt
The perfect stem is formed in various ways:
1 Regular verbs of the 1st, 2nd and 4th conjugations form perfects as follows:
The suffix -v or -u is added to the verb stem, e.g.
1st para-, perfect parä-v-ï; 2nd mone-, perfect mon-u-ï (the e of the stem drops out);
4th audi-, perfect audï-v-ï
Chapter 17 Tenses; imperfect tense
Verbs in Latin alter their endings to indicate different tenses, i.e. the time at which an action or
event takes place. So far all the stories have been told in the present tense; this is used when the
action of the verb is happening now or happens regularly, e.g.
Flaccus in agrö labörat. Flaccus is working in the field (now) or Flaccus works in the field (every day).
We now introduce two past tenses:
1 The imperfect tense
This tense is used when an action in the past is continuous, repeated or incomplete, e.g.
Flaccus in agrö diü laböräbat. Flaccus was working in the field for a long time.
Quïntus ad lüdum cotïdië ambuläbat. Quintus used to walk to school every day.
Horätia iänuam claudëbat, cum mäter ‘nölï’ inquit ‘iänuam claudere.’
Horatia was shutting the door when her mother said ‘Don't shut the door.’
Chapter 17 Perfect stems
The perfect stem is formed in various ways:
1 For regular verbs of the 1st, 2nd and 4th conjugations -v or -u is added to the verb stem, e.g.: 1st
para-, perfect parä-v-ï; 2nd mone-, perfect mon-u-ï (the e drops out); 4th audi-, perfect audï-v-ï
2 3rd conjugation verbs, the stems of which end in a consonant or in u, follow various patterns:
1 The suffix -s is added to the verb stem. e.g.:
reg-ö, reg-ere, perfect rëx-ï (for rëg-s-ï); dïc-ö, dïc-ere, perfect dïx-ï (for dïc-s-ï)
2 The verb stem is unchanged, e.g.:
contend-ö, contendere, perfect contend-ï; cönstitu-ö, cönstituere, perfect cönstitu-ï
3 The vowel of the present stem is lengthened, e.g.:
leg-ö, leg-ere, perfect lëg-ï; em-ö, em-ere, perfect ëm-ï
4 The present stem is reduplicated (i.e. the first syllable is doubled), e.g:
cad-ö, cad-ere, perfect ce-cid-ï; curr-ö, curr-ere, perfect cu-curr-ï
5 The suffix -v/ïv or -u is added to the stem, e.g.:
sin-ö, sin-ere, perfect sïvï; pet-ö, pet-ere, perfect petïvï; pön-ö, pon-ere, perfect posuï
Chapter 17 Imperfect tense
Note that English does not always indicate time so precisely, e.g.
Flaccus worked in the field a long time: but Latin will say laböräbat, since the action is continuous.
Quintus walked to school every day: but Latin will say ambuläbat, since the action is repeated.
The imperfect tense is formed by adding the following endings to the present stem:
Imperfect endings Present personal endings
-bam I [par-ö]
-bäs you (s) par-äs
-bat he/she/it par-at
-bämus we par-ämus
-bätis you (pl) par-ätis
-bant they par-ant
These rules will enable you to recognize most perfect forms in your reading.
At present only learn the following, which add the suffix -s to the present stem:
scrïbö, scrïbere, scrïpsï, 3, I write
dïcö, dïcere, dïxï, 3, I say
dücö, dücere, düxï, 3, I lead
regö, regere, rëxi, 3, I rule
claudö, claudere, clausï, 3, I close
ëvädö, ëvädere, ëväsï, 3, I escape
cëdö, cëdere, cessï, 3, I yield, I go
lüdö, lüdere, lüsï, 3, I play
mittö, mittere, mïsï, 3, I send
surgö, surgere, surrëxï, 3, I get up, rise
gerö, gerere, gessï, 3, I carry, wear
When -s is added to the consonant in which the present stem ends, certain changes of spelling
occur, e.g. c + s = x (dïc-sï becomes dïxï); d drops out (claud-sï becomes clausï), etc.
Chapter 17 Imperfect tense
stem 1 parä- 2 monë- 3 reg- 3io capi- 4 audi-
I was preparing I was warning I was ruling I was taking I was hearing
parä-bam monë-bam reg-ë-bam capi-ë-bam audï-ë-bam
parä-bäs monë-bäs reg-ë-bäs capi-ë-bäs audï-ë-bäs
parä-bat monë-bat reg-ë-bat capi-ë-bat audï-ë-bat
parä-bämus monë-bämus reg-ë-bämus capi-ë-bämus audï-ë-bämus
parä-bätis monë-bätis reg-ë-bätis capi-ë-bätis audï-ë-bätis
parä-bant monë-bant reg-ë-bant capi-ë-bant audï-ë-bant
NB 1 3rd and 4th conjugation verbs insert -ë- after the stem before the imperfect person endings.
2 3rd conjugation -iö verbs form imperfects like audiö: capi-ë-bam etc.
3 The imperfect of sum is: eram I was; eräs you (s) were; erat he/she/it was;
erämus we were; erätis you (pl) were; erant they were
The perfect of compound verbs is usually the same as that of the simple, e.g.
dücö, dücere, düxï, 3, I lead redücö, redücere, redüxï, 3, I lead back
cëdö, cëdere, cessï, 3, I yield, I go accëdö, accëdere, accessï, 3, I approach
mittö, mittere, mïsï, 3, I send remittö, remittere, remïsï, 3, I send back
A few 2nd conjugation verbs also form the perfect by adding suffix -s; learn the following
augeö, augëre, auxï, 2, I increase
iubeö, iubëre, iussï, 2, I order
maneö, manëre, mänsï, 2, I remain, stay
persuädeö, persuädëre, persuäsï + dat, 2, I persuade
rïdeö, rïdëre, rïsï, 2, I laugh
Chapter 17 Perfect tense
2 The imperfect tense
The perfect tense is most often used to express completed past action, e.g.
Flaccus ad agrum ambulävit. Flaccus walked to the field.
Flaccus ad agrum nön ambulävit. Flaccus did not walk to the field.
nönne Flaccus ad agrum ambulävit? Didn't Flaccus walk to the field?
The perfect person endings are the same for every conjugation:
singular -ï I plural -imus we
-istï you (s) -istis you (pl)
-it he/she/it -ërunt they
These endings are attached to the perfect stem:
1st paräv- 3rd rëx-
2nd monu- 4th audïv-
The perfect stem of sum is fu-:
fu-ï I was
fu-istï you (sing.) were
fu-it he/she was
fu-imus we were
fu-istis you (pl.) were
fu-ërunt they were
sum, esse, eram (i), fuï (p), irr, I am
superö, superäre, superävï, 1, I overcome
discëdö, discëdere, discessï, 3, I go away,
depart
legö, legere, lëgï, 3, I read
crëdö, crëdere, crëdidi + dat, 3, I believe,
trust
prömittö, prömittere, prömïsï, 3, I promise
effciö, efficere, effëcï, 3, I effect, carry out
deinde, adv, then, next
enim, adv, for
igitur, adv, and so, therefore
tamen, adv, however, but
höra, -ae, nf, hour
pecünia, -ae, nf, money
divitiae, -ärum, nfpl, riches
candidätus, -ï, nm, candidate
numerus, -ï, nm, number
örätiö, örätiönis, nf, speech
örätiönem habëre, to make a speech
vulnus, vulneris, nn, wound
candidus, -a, -um, adj, white
optimus, -a, -um, adj, best
pessimus, -a, -um, adj, worst
vërus, -a, -um, adj, true
vëra dïcere, to speak the truth
gravis, grave, adj, heavy, serious
cum, conj, when

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