The different parts of speech complete

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Comprehensive Grammar Rules Handbook
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment for the Courses THE TEACHING
OF SPEAKING (Engl 19) and PREPARATION & EVALUATION
OF INSTRUCTIONALMATERIALS IN ENGLISH (Engl 21)
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October 2014
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2. 1
The Different Parts of Speech
Nouns
Nouns are names of people, places, things, ideas, and events.
I. Kinds of Nouns
1. Proper Nouns – These name a specific person, place, or thing and always
start with a capital letter.
e.g. Andrei, Philippines, December
2. Common Nouns – These are general names.
e.g. writer, building, baby, car
3. Mass nouns – These cannot be directly counted and are taken as a whole.
They cannot be made plural by adding –s or –es at the end.
e.g. salt, sugar, damage, water
4. Count nouns - These are names that can be directly counted. They can also
be made plural by adding –s or –es at the end.
e.g. dress, piano, brush, can
5. Abstract Nouns – These are names of ideas, qualities, conditions, or
emotions. They cannot also be made plural by adding –s or –es at the end.
e.g.success, beauty, intelligence, happiness
6. Concrete nouns – These can be perceived by any of the five senses. They
can also be count or mass nouns.
e.g. chair, rain, lightning, food

3. 2
7. Collective Nouns – These are names of groups of persons, things, or
animals. e.g. band, flock, crowd, family
8. Compound Nouns – These are nouns that are made up of one word.
Types of Compound Nouns:
1. Separated - police station, bubble bath
2. Hyphenated - editor-in-chief, hand-me-down
3. Combined - ballpen, seaman
9. Adjectives that functionasnouns – Adjectives may be considered nouns
when they represent people. They come after the determiner “The” and
verbs may immediately come after them. Also, they are considered plural in
number. Therefore, if they are used as subjects in sentences, plural verbs
come after them.
e.g. The determined succeed.
The senator gave the jobless employment.
*Mass, abstract, and some concrete nouns are considered Noncount.
II. Forms of Nouns
Nouns are easy to find in a sentence because of their appearance. A word is
a noun when:
1. it has a singular and plural form.(Refer to Appendix A)
e.g. car cars
mouse mice
2. it has a gender, either male, female or neuter. (Refer to Appendix B)
e.g. male – father
female – mother
common – parent
neuter – house

4. 3
3. it has cases, namely the nominative (or subjective), the objective, and the
possessive. It is only in the possessive case that the form of nouns
changes.
4. it has endings or suffixes such as –age, -ce, -cy, -dom, -ion, -ism, -ity, -
ment, -ness, -or, -ship, -sy, -tion, -ty, -ure. (Refer to Appendix C)
e.g. happiness equality
kingdom agreement
III. Noun Cases
Case refers to how nouns (or pronouns) are used in sentences. The three
cases are the nominative(or subjective), the objective, and the possessive.
The table below shows the uses of these cases.
Case Use
Nominative Subject or Predicate Nominative
Objective
Direct Object, Indirect Object. or, Object of a
Preposition
Possessive To show ownership
Here are sentences showing the ways how nouns can be used.
1. as a subject of a verb
e,gFlowersgrow in the garden.
subject verb
2. as predicate nominative (or complement of a linking verb)
e.g. Jossie is the pride of the school.
linking complement
verb
3. as the direct object t of a verb
e.g. Lito drives his car to the bank.
verb direct
object

5. 4
4. as the indirect object of a verb
e.g. The man gave his wife a gold ring.
verb indirect
object
5. as the object of a preposition
e.g. You will find the vase beside the chair.
preposition obj.of the preposition
6. as objective complement
e.g.We made Isaac lead guitarist of the band.
d.o. obj. complement
7. asnominative of address (a noun that is used in direct quotations; also
called direct address.)
e.g. Ben, take this.
Nominative
of address
8. as appositive (a noun that renames, identifies, or explains a noun or
pronoun in the sentence)
e.g. Our dog, a poodle turned seven last week.
Appositive
IV. Possessive Forms of Nouns
Here are several rules in using the possessive form.
1. Add an apostrophe and s (‘s) to singular nouns not ending in –s.
e.g. Kay’s shoes
The artist’s painting
2. Add only an apostrophe(’)to plural noun ending in –s.
e.g. the musicians’ instrument
the heroes’ welcome

6. 5
3. Add an apostrophe and s (‘s)to a plural noun that has a different spelling
from that of a singular form.
e.g. children‘sfood (from the singular form child)
brethren‘shouses (from the singular form brother; another
plural form brothers)
4. Add an apostrophe and s (‘s)to one-syllable nouns that end in –s.
e.g James‘squestions
Bress‘snotebooks
However, if the next word starts with s, add only an apostrophe(’)to the
possessor.
e.g. Thess’suitors
Jess’ songs
5. Add an apostrophe(’)to more-than-one-syllable nouns ending in –s.
e.g. the actress’ performance
the carcass’stench
6. Add an apostrophe(’)to proper nouns with two or more syllables that have
an s sound before the last s sound.
e.g. Moses’ sermon
Ulysses’ journey
7. In joint ownership, add an apostrophe and s (‘s)to the last noun.
e.g. Ling and Tina‘sroom
Glenda, Gladys, and Gemma‘sfather
8. In separate ownership,add an apostrophe and s (‘s) and an
apostrophe(’)at the end of each noun.
e.g. Ling‘s and Tina‘sroom

7. 6
Glenda‘s, Gladys’, and Gemma‘sclosets
9. In compound nouns, add an apostrophe and s (‘s) to the last word.
e.g. the editor-in-chief‘sarticles
his sisters-in-law‘shouses
10. Add an apostrophe and s (‘s)to nouns ending in –z or –x.
e.g. the Alferez‘ssuccess
Alex‘sresearch
11. If the possessor is placed after the possession, not the following:
“Mary’s friend”can be turned into “a friend of Mary’s,”, “a friend of
hers,” or “the friend of Mary,” but not “the friend of hers.”
12. Generally, inanimate nouns do not show ownership. However, the
possessive pronoun its is noun normally used in the international media.
e.g. SUBSTANDARD: the house’s kitchen
STANDARD: the kitchen of the house
ACCEPTABLE: its kitchen
V. Plural Forms of Nouns
A. Regular Plurals
In general, to form plurals of singular count nouns, add –s or –es at the end
of the lesson.
Noun Ending Rule Examples Exemptions
s, x, z, ch, sh,
ss
Add –es
dishes, boxes,
dresses, waltzes
oxen, quizzes
o preceded by
Add –es
tomatoes, heroes,
potatoes
Musical terms:
pianos, altos;

8. 7
a consonant
photos, logos
o preceded by
a vowel
Add –s
zoos, radios,
tattoos
y preceded by
a consonant
Change y to I and
add –es
babies, cities,
ladies
y preceded by
a vowel
Add -s
days, toys,
kidneys
f, ff, fe
Add -s
hoofs, beliefs,
cliffs, cuffs, chefs,
proofs
Change f to v and
add s or es :
elves, halves,
knives, lives,
loaves, thieves
B. Irregular Plurals
Irregular plurals generally have a different spelling from that of their singular
form. Therefore, they are not formed according to the rules given on the
previous page. (Refer to Appendix A, Tables 1 to 3, for examples of irregular
plurals)
C. Forming Plurals of Compound Nouns
To make compound nouns plural, add –s or –es at the end of the first noun.
e.g. sergeants-at-arm
mothers-in-law
D. Forming Plurals of Letters, Numbers, and Names
To make numbers, letters, or names plural, add –s after them.
e.g. How many 2sare there in 16?
There are two Rs in the word “occurred.”

9. 8
We have three Joeys in the class roster.
VI. Partitive Nouns
Noncount nouns cannot have –s or –es at the end to make them plural.
Partitive nouns or quantifiersare used to make these noncount nouns singular
or plural.
Here is a list of noncount nouns that are made plural by adding
partitivenounsbefore or after them.
advice – pieces of advice
applause- rounds of applause
baggage- pieces of baggage
butter- cubes of butter
cheese- slices of cheese
corn- ears of corn, kernels
dust- specks of dust
equipment- pieces of equipment
evidence- pieces of evidence
fish - schools of fish
flour – teaspoons of flour
food – food items
furniture – pieces of furniture
hair – strands of hair
information – bits of information
ink – bottles of ink
jewelry – pieces / sets of jewelry
lettuce – heads of lettuce
lightning – bolts of lightning
milk – bottles / glasses of milk
music – musical pieces / scores
oil – bottles / drops of oil
rice – grains / sacks of rice
salt – teaspoonful of salt
sand - grains / sacks of sand
sheep – flocks of sheep
smoke – wisps of smoke
soap – bars of soap
soda – bottles of soda
tea – cups of tea
thunder – peals of thunder
wine – bottles of wine
To make a noncount noun from the list above singular, remove the –s from
the partitive noun and then add the determiner a or anbefore it.
e.g. A pieces of jewelry wassold yesterday.
Pieces of jewelry weresold last week.

10. 9
Quantifying Count and Mass Nouns: The table below shows how to
quantify count or mass (noncount) nouns.
Count many few a number of
Mass much less, not much an amount of
Both Count or Mass more
e.g. more tables a few pens a number of books
much money less water an amount of salt
VII. Rules of Capitalization
Through capital letter, it is easy to know the important parts of the sentence
that need to be emphasized.
To capitalize is to use a capital letter at the start of the word. Specifically,
capitalization is used:
Usage Examples
*in the first word of a sentence Everyone loves the new book.
*to indicate proper nouns Philippine, Marc, Sony
*for days of the week and months Friday, December
*in the first word of a salutation
My dearest Jamie,
Dear Jake,
*in the first word of a complimentary close
Respectfully Yours,
Love,
*in naming a direction She went to the North.
*in the first word of a direct quotation Annie replied, “It wasn’t my fault.”
*in the first and all the important words in a
title (These words are nouns, verbs,
adjectives, adverbs, and the first word in a
title.)
The 50 Most Beautiful Islands of the
Philippines
*in titles, when they refer to a particular General Maximus

11. 10
official or family member First Lady Nancy Reagan
*in the pronoun I and the interjection O
I am happy.
O Father, hear us.
Verbs
Verbs show “action” or “being.”
When verbs show being, they express the condition of someone or the fact that
something exists. They link a noun used as a subject to another noun, as in the
sentence “The teacher is Mrs. Alfarez,” or to a pronoun modifying it, such as in “The
teacher is industrious.” Such connectors are called linking or copulative verbs.
On the other hand, some verbs that show action are either visible (smile, touch, dance,
write) or mental (think, believe, hope, learn). There are also regular verbs and irregular
verbs.
I. Kinds of Verbs
Regular verbs form their simple past and past participles by adding –d or –ed at
the end of the verbs.
e.g. smile touch dance hope
smiled touched danced hoped
Irregular verbs form their simple past and past participles by changing their
spelling.
e.g. catch sing rise write
caught sang rose wrote

12. 11
Linking or Action Verb?
The most common linking verbs, or verbs that link two or more words in a sentence, are
the forms of be. Here are the examples:
The Forms of BE
am can be have been
are could behas been
is may be had been
wasmight becould have been
were must be may have been
am beingshall be might have been
are beingshould be must have been
is being will be shall have been
was being would be should have been
were being will have been
would have been
Some verbs may use either as linking verbs or as an action verbs. Examples of such
are appear, become, feel, grow, look, remain, seem, smell, stay, taste, and turn.
To know if the verb is linking or action, try using am, is, or are in place of the verb of the
sentence. If the sentence makes sense, the verb is a linking verb. Otherwise, it is an
action verb. See the example below.
The flower smells fragrant.
In this sentence, smells does not seem to a linking verb. But if the verb isis substituted
for it, the sentence makes sense.
The flower is fragrant.
In this case, smells is a linking verb.
Now, look at the next example.
The gardener smells the flower.
If the verb isis substituted for smells, then the sentence will not make sense.
The gardener is the flower.
Therefore, smells in the second sentence is an action verb.

13. II. The Verb Phrase
One verb may consist of many words. This is called a verb phrase which is made up of
a main verb and one or more helping verbs. Here is an example.
The doctor has left the building already.
12
A B
Both A and B make up the Verb Phrase. The last word is always the main verb and the
word or words before it are called helpingverbs.
A. Helping Verbs
Here are the different kinds of helping verbs.
1. Modals
These are helping verbs that modify the meaning of the main verb in a sentence.
When they are used, the main verbs that come after them no longer take tense.
e.g. She can doit! (notcan didit)
*examples of modals and their usage are found on the Appendix G.
2. Auxiliary Verbs
These show the progressive, the passive, the emphatic, the negative, or the
perfect verb forms. Here is a table showing the different auxiliary verbs and their forms.
Look at the examples after the table.
BE - Verbs DO - Verbs HAVE - Verbs
Am, is are, was, were, will
be
Do, does, did, do not, does
not, did not
has, have, had, has not,
have not, had not
*Only verbs in the present
participle orpast
participlecome after theBE
*Only verbs in the simple
present come after the DO
– Verbs.
*Only verbs in the past
participle come after the
HAVE –Verbs. However, if

14. 13
– Verbs. these HAVE – Verbs have
“been”after them, then, the
present participle can also
be used.
Be Andrei is learning how to drive. (progressive)
The car was parked by Andrei. (passive)
Do I do know that Andrei is learning how to drive a car. (emphatic)
Andrei’s brothers did not think that he would pass his driving test. (negative)
Have Andrei had passed his driving test before he bought the car. (perfect)
III. The Four Principal Parts of the Verb
Verbs can further be classified according to form or appearance. These are:
Verb Forms Examples
PRESENT *This form be the base or
simple form of the verb,.
This does not have –s, -es,
or –ies after it.
*The present form can have
either an –s or –es after it if
the subject or the doer of
the action is singular
*For some verbs ending
with –y, remove –y and add
–iesto make the verb
My parents eat breakfast
early.
He lives in the big city.
Mary studies at the
university.

15. 14
singular.
PAST *The past form of a regular
verb has –d or –ed after it.
*The past form of an
irregular verb is changed in
spelling.
*Some verbs in the past
form do not have any
changes in spelling.
She danced with her
father.
Butch drove the van
carefully.
The balloon burst
yesterday
PRESENT PARTICIPLE
*This form has an –ing in
the end.
*BE –Verbs are used
before the present
participle.
*HAVE – Verbs can be
added to “been” to form
“(has/have/had) + been +
present participle.”
I am reading the
newspaper.
Nenethas been sleeping
for nine hours straight.
PAST PARTICIPLE
*Have – Verbs and BE –
Verbs are used before the
past participles.
*The past participle of a
regular verb has –d or –ed
after it.
*The past participle of an
irregular verb is changed in
spelling.
*Some past participles do
not change in spelling.
*When past participle verbs
He has worked in the
army.
We have eaten lunch
already.
Ruthhas read the
magazine.
The bell was rung twice
already.

16. 15
are used in the passive
voice, BE – Verbs or “been”
+ HAVE –verbs are used
before them.
The van has been broken
for years.
IV. The Emphatic Form
The emphatic form highlights the action of the doer. The DO – verbs (the helping verbs
do, does, and did) are used to show the emphatic transformation of a verb. After these
DO – verbs comes the base form of the verb.
e.g. I understand what you’re trying to tell me.
I do understand what you’re trying to tell.
V. Active and Passive Voice
Voice is the property of the verb that shows whether the subjects is the doer or the
receiver of the action in the sentence.
A verb is in the active voice when the subject does the action.
e.g. The author wrote a children’s book.
A verb is in the passive voice when the action is done to the subject. In other words,
the subjectis always a be – verb followed by a verb in the past participle.
e.g. The book was written because the author likes children very much.
**Some verbs in the past participle may not be used alone in their passive form.
Prepositions should be added to make them correct.
e.g. laughed
Active: He laughed hard when he heard the joke.

17. 16
Passive: He was laughed at when he slipped on a banana peel.
**Some verbs, however, cannot be used in the passive voice. Examples of such verbs
are abide, bid, bleed, cling, come, cost, flee, float, flow, hesitate, mingle, quit,
roar, and soar.
Active: Burt came to the conversation alone.
Passive: Burt was came… (This is incorrect!)
Active: My sister hesitated to answer the question.
Passive: My sister was hesitated… (This is also incorrect!)
*Look at voice transformation according to tenses on Appendix H.
VI. Moods of Verbs
Mood tells the manner of expression of the verb. There are three types.
A. Indicative Mood – expresses declaration or inquiry
e.g. Do you know where the coffee shop is?
He made it to the honor roll.
B. Imperative Mood – speaks of a request or command
e.g. Please leave your things at the counter.
Tell me your name.
C. Subjunctive Mood – in all of these, the verb were or a modal in the past tense is
used. The subjunctive mood is used:
 when a sentence expresses a condition contrary to fact
e.g. The director decided to have the opening night next week as if our
rehearsals were that much.
 when a sentence expresses a compromise or resolve
e.g. if Rena were to visit me next week, I should be in Italy by then.
 when a sentence uses the verb wish
e.g. Jazz wishes Joshua were there in the meeting.

18. 17
A sentence expressing a command or desire is followed by a thatclause. Within
this clause is a verb in the base or the simple form. Also, a verb such as ask,
demand, hope, insist, propose, recommend, request, require, or suggest
can be used.
e.g. It is important that he study before the exam.
VII. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
A. Transitive verbs
The only verbs used here are action verbs. They are followed by complements or
objects such as nouns or pronouns. They also answer the question whom?orwhat?
e.g. Fred kissed Lulu. (Fred kissed whom? Lulu)
object
The old lady wrote something. (The lady wrote what? something)
object
Therefore, the verbs kissed and wrote in the sentences are above transitive.
Phrasal verbs may also be transitive. A phrasal verb is a group of words which
functions as a verb in the sentence. They are also considered idioms.
Here is an example of transitive phrasal verbs.
e.g. Lara put on her hat. (Lara put onwhat? her hat)
B. Intransitive verbs
These verbs do not have complements which receive the action. They end either in
themselves or with adverbs.
e.g. The couple danced.
Joy chuckled.
Marvin writesconstantly. (adverb)
The child staysthere. (adverb)

19. 18
VIII. Verbals
A verbal looks like a verb but functions either as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. It
can come in phrase form if words are added to it. There are three categories.
1. Participles – These function as adjectives. They have two forms: the present
(verb with –ing) and the past (verb with -ed, -d, -en, -or –t).
e.g. the sleeping girl (present participle)
ahidden talent (past participle)
The past participle sleeping functions as an adjective because it
describes noun girl. It answers the question “What kind of girl?” Similarly,
in the second example, hidden describes the kind of talent.
2. Gerunds – These verbals have -ing. They are used as nouns.
e.g. Eating is necessity.
The thing I taught Fely this year was driving.
In the first example, the word Eating functions not as a verb but as a
noun. Also, it answers the question “What is a necessity?” (Nouns answer
what questions.) Specifically, it is the subject or the one being talked about
in the sentence. The word driving in the second example is the predicate
noun in the sentence.
3. Infinitives – These are used as nouns, adjectives or adverbs. They are
constructed by adding “to” before a verb.
e.g. To eat is a necessity.
The person to consult is my teacher.
I find it really hard to dance.
In the first example, the word To eat functions as a noun because it is the
subject which answers the question “What is a necessity?” in the second

20. 19
example, to consult describes the kind of person talked about in the
sentence.it functions as an adjective. Finally, in the third, to dance
functions as an adverb which describes the adjective hard.
There are two kinds of infinitives.
1. Present Infinitive- when “to” is followed by a base or a simple
form of a verb
e.g. I love to sing.
To smile is a good thing.
2. Perfect Infinitive - when “to”is followed by the helping word have
and a verb in the past participle.
e.g. To haveslept is so relaxing.
I am glad to have come.
**Some verbals omit the preposition “to” but are still considered as
infinitives. This may be applied when dare, help, let, or make is used as
the verb in the sentence.
e.g. I dared not join.
My students helped me check papers.
They let me see their work right away.
Bonito just made the baby laugh!
The words join, check, see, and laugh do not have “to” before
them but are still considered infinitives.
Infinitive or Prepositional Phrase?
A prepositional phrase always has an object (a noun or a pronoun) after
“to” while an infinitive has a verb.
(Prepositional Phrase) = “to” + noun or pronoun
e.g. to the park, to him, to someone

21. 20
(Infinitive) = “to” + verb
e.g. to drive, to have swum
IX. Verb Tenses
Tense refers to the form a verb takes to indicate when and/or how long the action
is, was, or will be done (whether it is done in the present, or during the past, or in
the future). Look at the table below that shows the use of auxiliary verbs
according to tense.
Singular Plural
Present am, is does are, do
Past was, did were, did
Future will be will be
Perfect has, has done
had, had done
have, have done
had, had done
Progressive has been, had been have been, had been
The following tables show how verbs are formed according to tense.
A. The Simple Tenses
Tense Usage Example
PRESENT
(Add -s or -es at
the end if the
subject in the
sentence is
singular.)
*used to tell a general truth
or fact
The earth revolves
around the sun.
*used to show habit I always go to the gym.
*used to show an existing
The dress is worn out.
condition
*used to explain a process When the leaves of a
planet receive sunlight,
photosynthesis begins.

22. 21
*used in conditionals When he finishes his
meal, please tell me.
*used to retell stories
(like in movies)
One man hits another,
then Tommy, the hero,
comes to the rescue.
*used to promote
something(as in an
advertisement)
Brand X cleanses the
skin like no other soaps
can.
PAST
(verb with -d or
-edfor regular
verbs; verb
changed in
spelling for
irregular verbs)
*used to indicate an action
which is true only in the past
The scouts decided to
move the trip from May 5
to May 28.
*used in conditional
sentences to refer to a
probable or supposed event
If you did continue your
studies, you might have
been a lawyer.
*used to complement other
verbs which are used in the
past tense in the sentence
I really thought I could
dance well. (The verb
thought complements
could.)
FUTURE
(verb with the
modal will or
shall)
*used to show simple action
or condition in the future
She will dance in the
contest tomorrow.
B. The Perfect Tenses
Tense Usage Example
PRESENT
PERFECT
*used to show an action that
happened before and is still
done up to the present
Lanihas worked like a
dog ever since the
supervisor came.
*used to show a state of She has been sick since

23. 22
(has / have +
past participle)
being that was true before
and is still up to the present
Friday.
*used to show an event to
be finished in the future
Once they have written
the book, we will publish
it.
*used to show a recently
concluded action with the
help of the adverb just,
already, or recently
The project has ended
recently.
PAST
PERFECT
(had + past
participle)
*used in a past action that
came before another past
action (Therefore, “had” is
placed in the first past
action and the other verb is
only in the simple past
Andy had left when the
teacher came.
(This means that Andy
left first then the teacher
came.)
PAST
PERFECT
(had + past
participle)
** The expression had had
is simply “had + past
participle of have. “
I had had wine and
cheese before I ate the
main dish.
FUTURE
PERFECT
(will have +
past participle)
*To understand how this
tense is used, imagine a
person talking to somebody.
Then he takes him to the
future by giving time
markers preceded by “by”
such as by tomorrow, by
the next decade, or others
such as ten years from
now, a few months from
now, etc. Then he uses the
future perfect tense to show
Four years from now,
Bea will have been a
licensed nurse.
(This means that before
the four years lapse, Bea
already became a
licensed nurse.)

24. 23
a completed action before
that certain time.
C. The Progressive Tenses
Tense Usage Example
PRESENT
PROGRESSIVE
(am/ is/ are + present
participle)
*used to show an on-going
action at the
moment
She is strolling along
with her friend at the park
*used to show future
action
My dad is leaving for the
U.S. tomorrow.
PAST
PROGRESSIVE
(was/ were + present
participle)
*used when something
was going on at one point
in time when another
thing happened
Ricky was filing the
papers when his
manager called him.
FUTURE
PROGRESSIVE
(will be + present
participle)
*This is similar to the
future perfect tense. This
also includes time
markers preceded by “by”
such as by the year
ends, by the start of the
week, or others like a
week from now, a few
months from now, etc.
This tells the continuous
action that is about to
happen when a certain
time comes.
By the time she
graduates, Myrna will be
receiving many awards.
I will be sleeping by ten
this evening.

25. 24
D. The Perfect Progressive Tenses
Tense Usage Example
PRESENT
PERFECT
PROGRESSIVE
(has been/have been +
present participle)
*used to state an action
that started in the past
and is still continuing up
to the present
a. Complaints
e.g. He has been
waiting here for
an hour.
b. Attempt to do
things
e.g. I have been
calling you since
Tuesday.
PAST
PERFECT
PROGRESSIVE
(had been + present
participle)
*used to state a past
continuous action when
another past action
happened
My brother-in-law had
been playing with his
band before he finally
settled down in Chicago.
We had been eating
when the phone rang.
FUTURE
PERFECT
PROGRESSIVE
(will have been + present
participle)
*used to tell an action
that is predicted to
continuously happen
when a certain time
comes
By this afternoon, my
relatives will have been
arriving from the airport.
A month from now,
Litowill have been
travelling in Athens.
Adjectives

26. 25
Adjectives describe nouns or pronouns.
They are also called modifiers.
Placed before nouns or after linking verbs, adjectives answer the question “What kind?,”
“Which one?,” or “How many?”
What kind of mug? Which section? How many boxes?
a large mug the middle section six boxes of apple
I. Adjectives According to Function
1. An adjective that come before a noun is called an attributive adjective.
e.g. True friends are not so hard to find.
2. An adjective that comes after a linking verb is called a subjective
complement. It may also be called a predicate adjective.
e.g. This meal is loaded with vitamins and minerals.
3. An adjective that comes after an object of transitive verb is called an
objective complement.
e.g. Guillermo made his painting more beautiful compared with those of
his other friends.
II. Categories of Adjectives
A. Descriptive adjectives – These adjectives state condition or quality which can be
changed. There are two main types.

27. 26
1. Gradable adjectives – These can be expressed in different degrees of
comparison by using more, most, less, least or by affixing with -er or -est.
e.g. more grateful wisest
2. Absolute adjectives – These cannot be compared using the adverb more,
,most, less, least, but other adverbs of degree can be attached to them such
as almost, nearly, and not quite.
e.g. absent final round
dead ideal straight
essential perfect unique
B. Limiting adjectives – these adjectives point out or indicate a quantity or a quality
that limits the nouns that follow them. There are three main types.
1. Articles – These are the, a, and an. The last two articles a, and an, modify a
singular count noun. The, on the other hand, can modify either a singular or
plural noun.
e.g. a bag the computer
an egg the computers
2. Numerals – These are either cardinal numbers or ordinal numbers.
e.g. Cardinal: two girls, twelve chapters
Ordinal: sixth car, eighth floor
3. Pronominals– These are pronouns which also function as adjectives. The
following are the different kinds of pronominals.
a. Demonstrative adjectives – These are this, that, these, and those.
e.g. this gown, those clothes

28. 27
b. Possessive adjectives – These are my, your, his, her, their, its, and
our.
e.g. her brush, my house
c. Distributive adjectives – These are each, every, either, and neither.
e.g. each pen, neither woman
d. Indefinite adjectives – examples are any, all, another, both, few, many,
etc.
e.g. some pictures, another toy
e. Interrogative adjectives – These are which, what, and whose.
e.g. which question, whose ball
C. Noun adjectives (or nominal adjectives) – These are nouns that function as
adjectives.
e.g. I have made a research on my country’s government system.
My mother made fruit salad for my birthday.
** A participle can also function as an adjective.
e.g. The giggling baby is my son.
He fixed my broken watch.
In the first example, the present participle verb giggling functions as an adjective
describing the noun baby. It answers “What kind of baby?”.In the second,the past
participle broken also functions as an adjective describing the noun watch. It
answers “What kind of watch?”
** Two words joined together can function as adjectives. These are called
compound adjectives. While some are hyphenated, some are not.
e.g. multicolored birds
well-to-do family

29. 28
** Proper nouns can also be used as adjectives. These are called proper
adjectives, and they usually begin with capital letters.
e.g. Philippine cuisine
MSA books
III. Order of Objectives
Nouns may have more than one adjective in a sentence. In such cases, the
following order of adjectives is used.
1 Determiner
2 Possessive Noun
3 Number: ordinal (first, second) or cardinal (one, two)
4 Size
5 Quality, Shape, etc.
6 Color
7 Proper adjective or Noun adjective
Noun
e.g. Therunner’sfirst three2-inchauthenticgoldOlympianmedals
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
IV. Degrees of Comparison
There are three types of comparison in the English language.
Positive: An adjective in the positive degree is the basic word itself. It is used to
simply describe a noun or a pronoun.
e.g. a wise teacher the grateful servant
asmart girl some expensive clothes

30. Comparative: An adjective in the comparative degree is marked by the suffix -er.
Normally, this is added to an adjective with one or two syllables. The adverbs
more and less come before an adjective with three or more syllables. The
adjective is followed by the preposition than. This degree is used to compare two
nouns or pronouns.
29
e.g. wiser than more grateful than
smarter than less expensive than
Superlative: An adjective in the superlative degree is marked by the suffix -estor
the adverb most or least which is placed before the adjective. This degree is
used to compare two nouns or pronouns.
e.g. the wisest teacher the most grateful
thesmartest girl the least expensive
** However, some adjectives with two or more syllables take more/less or
most/least as modifiers. These include the participles.
e.g. handsomer (×) more handsome ( )
popularer (×) more popular ( )
knowner (×) more known ( )
V. Irregular Modifiers
Some adjectives change in spelling when made comparative or superlative. Here
is a table that shows them.
Positive Comparative Superlative
bad/ ill worse worst
far (distance) farther farthest
far (extent) further furthest
good better best

31. 30
late later last/ latest
little (amount) less least
many/ much more most
** The adverbs badly and well also share the same degree change as bad and
good respectively.
Adverbs
Adverbs describe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.
They are also called modifiers.
Here are the kinds of adverbs.
1. Adverbs of TIME – These tell when the action is, was, or will be done.
Examples are last week, later, now, today, tomorrow, yesterday, etc.
e.g. He might get up late tomorrow.
2. Adverbs of PLACE – These tell where the action is, was, or will be done.
Examples are aboard, aboveground, here, inside, outside, etc.
e.g. The doctor went outside.
3. Adverbs of DEGREE – Also called intensifiers, these answer the question
How much?orHow little? Examples are completely, most, much, quite, so,
totally, too, very, etc.
e.g. We saw her baby who is so cute.
Aside from an adverb of degree, lesser is also used as an adjective to
mean “smaller” or “lower” as in “lesser percentage or “lesser number.”

32. 31
4. Adverbs of FREQUENCY - These adverbs state how often the action is,
was, or will be done. Examples are always, every week, fortnightly,
frequently, never, occasionally, often, seldom, sometimes, etc.
e.g. Kai often goes to the mall.
Adverbs of frequency are generally placed before the verb. However, in
informal or spoken English, placing these after verbs is acceptable.
FORMAL: He frequently goes to the library.
ACCEPTABLE: He goes to the library frequently.
5. Adverbs of MANNER – These adverbs state how or in whatmanner
anaction is was, or will be done. Many of them are formed by adding -ly to
adjectives. Examples are bravely, happily, patiently, sadly, etc.
e.g. Read the directions carefully.
Some words that end in –lysuch as leisurely, friendly, lovely, and silly are
adjectives. Avoid, therefore, using them as adverbs or placing them in
adverb phrases.
WORDY: She talked to me in a friendly way.
APPROPRIATE: She is friendly.
INCORRECT: You dance silly.
CORRECT: Your dance is silly.
6. Adverbs of AFFIRMATION – These adverbs indicate a positive disposition.
Examples are absolutely, certainly, definitely, positively, surely,
unquestionably, undeniably, yes, etc.
e.g. I am absolutely going to the party.

33. 32
7. Adverbs of NEGATION – These adverbs indicate a negative disposition.
Examples are absolutely not, never, no, not, not at all, etc.
e.g. I do not understand you.
8. Adverbs of DOUBT – These adverbs express hesitation or doubt. Examples
are maybe, most likely, perhaps, possibly, probably, etc.
e.g. The mail would probably arrive later.
9. Adverbs of APPROXIMATION – These adverbs express a rough estimation.
Examples are about, almost, approximately, around, more or less, roughly,
etc.
e.g. The building is roughly seven feet high.
* Like adjectives,adverbs have degrees of comparison.
Positive : She danced beautifully.
Comparative : She danced more beautifully than Lisa.
Superlative : She danced most beautifully in the class.
Conjunctive Adverbs
A conjunctive adverb is an adverb used as a conjunction which connects
complete ideas. Also called sentence connectors, transitional words, or
cohesive devices, conjunctive adverbs signal a particular relationship,
such as comparison, contrast, or cause and effect between ideas or
sentences. These may be found within a sentence or between sentences
in a paragraph. The blocked words below are examples of conjunctive
adverbs.
e.g. My teacher told me that my writing skills improved; however
she suggested that I still practice constantly. Furthermore, she
advised me to write about my experiences in a diary. I, on the
other hand, would rather join writing clubs instead.
Other examples of conjunctive adverbs are found on Appendix I.

34. 33
Adjective or Adverb?
The blocked words below may be used either as adjectives or as adverbs. They
describe the underlined words.
FAST
Adjective: Basketball players are fastrunners.
Adverb: The athletes ranfast.
HARD
Adjective: Hardevidence against him was found.
Adverb: The boys playedhard this season.
LATE
Adjective: Latestudents will not be given a test.
Adverb: Do not comelate.
LIKELY
Adjective: The likelydelegate to be sent in Reena
Adverb: He willlikelybe a member of the club.
RIGHT
Adjective: Do the rightthing and you will be rewarded for it.
Adverb: You better say it right.
STRAIGHT
Adjective: Form a straightline.
Adverb: Walkstraight.
WELL
Adjective: The patient is well at last.
Adverb: Speakwell in class.
Prepositions
Prepositions express relationships of nouns or pronouns with other words in a sentence.
They give a sentence additional meaning.

35. After prepositions always comes a noun or a pronoun which is called the object of the
preposition.
Prepositions are classified into five groups:
34
I. Location
Prepositions Usage Examples
above higher than or on top of above the building
across
from one side to the other;
opposite
across the street
along
in line with the direction of; with
someone or something
along the way; along with
her friends
amid surrounded by amid beautiful houses
around
location surrounding
something
around the mall
behind
at the back of someone or
something
behind her; behind the
wall
below under or underneath below the ground
beneath lower than or under beneath the sea
beside at the side or next to beside the park
down
along; in a lower physical
position
down the road; down the
stairs
inside within inside the house
into
refers to the motion or action
of getting inside
go into the water
near close to or next to near the bakery
off away from get off me
onto
movement towards the
surface of something
onto the stage
opposite across opposite the gym

36. 35
outside beyond outside the hall
over above something over the shelf
through by way of or by means of through the door
to
movement towards something
or someone
to the school; to the
teacher
under below or beneath under the bed
underneath below underneath the grass
upon
on top of something; carried
by something or someone
upon the table; upon me
II. Time
Prepositions Usage Examples
during
tells when an action is
happening
during class
for tells the duration of an action for eight years now
since
tells the start of an action done
up to the present
since September
till, until
reaching to a certain point in
time
till lunch time; until
February
III. Association
Prepositions Usage Examples
about concerning about the project
against in opposition to against the law
among
used in speaking of more than
two persons, animals, or
objects
among the class
between
used in speaking of two
persons, animals, or objects
between him and me
besides in addition to or aside from dancing besides singing

37. 36
but except but them
by past, by way of, or by means of by studying hard
concerning about concerning the book
despite regardless of despite the hurt
except excluding or but except them
for intended or in favor of for the baby
from
indicates the person/s from
whom something is gained;
coming or originating from
from the students
from the Philippines
like for example or such as like last year
of about; owned by of love; of Merle
throughout all the way through throughout the exam
toward/ towards in the direction of
toward light;
towards the east
with including with catsup
without with nothing without catsup
IV. Time or Location
Prepositions Usage Examples
after following after lunch
at
for time; used before clock
time
for location; used before exact
addresses and small places
such as restaurants, bars, etc.
at 8 o’clock
at 315 Katipunan
Avenue;
at the new mall
before ahead of before 7 p.m.
beyond further/farther than beyond the galaxy
between
in the middle of two given
things or time
between the chairs;
between 7 and 8 p.m.

38. 37
in
inside something;
for time; used before years,
months or seconds, etc;
for location; used before large
places such as a country,
capital, town, city, state, etc.
in my house
in 2005; in January; in
January 2005; in 60
seconds
in Manila;
in the city
on
on top of something;
for time; used before exact
dates or the days of the week;
for location; used before
places such as streets,
avenues or boulevards
on the ground;
on April 8, 2001;
on Saturday
on the street;
on Smithson Blvd.
past beyond a certain thing or time
past the counter;
past 5 p.m.
within
the time or place inside of
which something happens
within the store
within the week
V. Compound Preposition
Prepositions Usage Examples
according to said by according to them
aside from besides aside from eating
as to concerning as to the budget
because of
owing to the fact
(refers to reason)
because of you
by means of through by means of bus

39. 38
for the sake of considering or for the benefit of
for the sake of public
confidence
in addition to another point added or also in addition to this task
in front of before something or someone in front of the building
in place of replacing or instead of in place of the manager
in spite of
even in the existence of
something; regardless of
in spite of the difficulty
instead of rather than instead of crying
on account of because of on account of the law
prior to before prior to the wedding
with respect to considering with respect to the cost
** Object of the Preposition – This is a noun or a pronoun that comes after the
prepositions and answers the question What?orWhom?
e.g. I saw a starfish in that part of the aquarium.
(The starfish is seen inwhat?)
According to the professor, we will be arriving at the ice
` cream factory by noon.
(This is according towhom?)
Conjunctions
Conjunctions connect two or more words, phrases, clauses, or sentences. They function as
transition words and tell the quality of a word, phrase, or sentence.
There are three types of conjunctions:
I. Coordinating Conjunctions

40. 39
and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet
These are words that connect similar kinds of words or groups of words to help
achieve parallelism.
Examples
Connecting NOUNS to other NOUNS
Television setsandcomputers are sold in
the store.
Connecting PHRASES to other PHRASES
I don’t like hanging out in barsorgoing to
discos.
Connecting CLAUSES to other CLAUSES
I asked if I would writeorif I would just give
her a call.
Connecting SENTENCES to other
SENTENCES
He searched for Issa in all the classrooms
and laboratories in the school. But, he did
not find her.
II. Correlative Conjunctions
both … and neither …nor whether … or
either … or not only …but also not …but
These pairs of words connect similar words or groups of words to help
achieve parallelism.
Examples
Connecting NOUNS to other NOUNS
Neitherthe celebrantnor her parents
appear tired.
Connecting VERBS to other VERBS
Whetherhe agrees or disagrees does
notmatter.
Connecting PHRASES to other PHRASES
The news spread not onlyto the fifth
floorbut alsoto the next building.
III. Subordinating Conjunctions
after before till
although even though unless
as if until

41. 40
as if in order that when
as long as since where
as soon as so that whenever
as though than wherever
because though while
These connect two clauses and make one dependent on the other.
e.g. You have to finish editing the book so that it can be printed before
the end of the year.
I can go wherever I want to go.
Preposition or Conjunction?
Remember that a preposition is used in a phrase while a conjunction is used in a
clause. Here are some words that can be used either as a preposition or a conjunction.
AFTER :Preposition: You will find it after the bakery.
Conjunction: You will find it after you pass the bakery.
BEFORE :Preposition: They left before sunrise.
Conjunction: They left before my mother came.
BUT :Preposition:We asked everyone but him to leave the room.
Conjunction:No one asked him to leave but he did anyway.
THAN :Preposition:She likes Mary Beth more than him.
Conjunction:You are better than he.
UNTIL :Preposition:We will stay here until dawn.
Conjunction:We will not leave until Mary Ann arrive
Interjections

42. 41
Interjections express emotions such as happiness, fear, anger, pain, surprise, sorrow,
exhaustion, indecision, and hesitation. They can be used on their own.
Examples of interjections are:
golly great heavens
hey my goodness oh no
ouch wow yeah
Interjections are used with an exclamation point to express emotions.
e.g. He passed the test? All right!
Hey! What’s up?
Agreement
Agreement is the correct relationship between a subject and its verb, between a noun and its
referent, or between a pronoun and its pronoun referent.
Subject – Verb Agreement
I. The General Rule
A singular subject requires a singular verb. Therefore,
SINGULAR Verbs with –s or –es
SUBJECT + or is, was, has, does
e.g. The Nile River is found in Egypt.
My son sleeps early.
She was studying inside the room.
On the other hand, a plural subject requires a plural verb. Therefore,

43. 42
PLURAL Verbs without –s or –es
SUBJECT + or are, were, have, do
e.g. The houses are made of cement and wood.
Velia and Sixto leave the house at 6 a.m.
They were going to their nephew’s birthday party.
II. Noun Subjects with Phrase
In general, a phrase after a subject does not affect the subject’s
agreement with its verb.
A. A lot of phrases may move attention away from the real subject. These
phrases may modify the nouns before them. First, look at the prepositional
phrase.This phrase starts with a preposition and ends with a noun. Here is an
example.
The stars in the sky shine brightly.
The complete subject here is Thestars in the sky. If one looks carefully, the main
or simple subject is stars, not sky, because sky is included in a prepositional phrase.
Also, stars, not sky, is the doer of the action. Therefore, the plural verb shineis used
because it agrees with the plural noun stars.
B. Now consider this example.
One of the men is an engineer.
In the expression One of the men, the subject is One, not the plural noun
menthat comes after it. Therefore, the singular verb isis used to agree with the subject.
C. Now try to look at the participial phrase. It is a phrase that begins with a
verb (either a verb in the present participle or past participle) and, as in the
example below, describes the noun that comes before it.
The boy playing with the toy carsis laughing loudly.
The complete subject in the example above has two nouns – boy and cars. But
since carsis in a participial phrase, the main or simple subject, therefore, is boy.

44. 43
Determiners
Determiners tell the degree of definiteness, quantity, or proximity of the noun or nouns after
them.
The types of determiners are as follows:
Types Examples
1. Articles a, an, the
2. Demonstratives this, that,these, those
3. Specifier such
4. Quantifiers any, each, every, either, neither
5. Negatives no, not any, not a single
6. Possessives my, your, his, her, its, our, their
Rules on the use of Articles (the, a, an)
Rule 1: All singular count nouns must be modified by a determiner.
e.g. The book is very helpful.
Where did you buy this book?
Rule 2: A andan are used only with singular nouns.
Rule 3: Words expressing a definite quantity in the singular are usually preceded
by a or an. Examples of such expressions are a dozen, a mile, a quart, a
pound, and a ton.
e.g. Add a tablespoon of sugar to the dish.

45. 44
Rule 4: When a noncount noun refers to a general concept, no article is used.
However, if the noncount noun is followed by an adjective clause or
phrase, it will have the article the before it.
e.g. Patience is a virtue.
The patience that the teacher displayed is admirable.
Rule 5: The is used with particular proper noun names of rivers, lakes, mountains,
etc. This however is not applicable with the words lake, and mountwhich
precede the name.
e.g. the Nile River theMediterranean Sea
Lake Michigan Mount Fuji
Rule 6: If a noun has a proper noun as a modifier, it would have thebefore the
proper noun.
e.g. the Hernandez residence thePhilippinearchipelago
Rule 7: The always come before the same.
e.g. The story in the book is thesame as that in the movie.
APPENDIX
Appendix A: Singular and Plural Nouns
As mentioned in previous chapter, nouns have plural forms that can be either
regular or irregular. Regular plurals are formed by merely adding –s or –es to the end of
a word. Occasionally, one may also have to change a letter or two in the singular form
of the noun.
However, irregular plurals are formed differently. The spelling of such may be
changed or not.
If no plural form is given, add –s or –es to the singular form. Tables 1-3 given
here contain common irregular plurals.
Table 1: Nouns with different spellings of singular and plural forms

46. 45
Singular Plural Singular Plural
alumna(female) alumnae die(used in games)
dice (refers to 2
only)
alumnus(male) alumni ellipsis ellipses
analysis analyses goose geese
axis axes loaf loaves
bacillus bacilli louse lice
bacterium bacteria man men
child children mouse mice
crisis crises ox oxen
criterion criteria phenomenon phenomena
datum data tooth teeth
diagnosis diagnoses thesis theses
Table 2: Nouns with same spelling of singular and plural forms
Singular Plural Singular Plural
cod cod salmon salmon
deer deer series series
moose moose sheep sheep

47. 46
APPENDIX
Appendix A: Singular and Plural Nouns
As mentioned in previous chapter, nouns have plural forms that can be either
regular or irregular. Regular plurals are formed by merely adding –s or –es to the end of
a word. Occasionally, one may also have to change a letter or two in the singular form
of the noun.
However, irregular plurals are formed differently. The spelling of such may be
changed or not.
If no plural form is given, add –s or –es to the singular form. Tables 1-3 given
here contain common irregular plurals.
Table 1: Nouns with different spellings of singular and plural forms
Singular Plural Singular Plural
alumna(female) alumnae die(used in games)
dice (refers to 2
only)
alumnus(male) alumni ellipsis ellipses
analysis analyses goose geese
axis axes loaf loaves
bacillus bacilli louse lice
bacterium bacteria man men
child children mouse mice
crisis crises ox oxen
criterion criteria phenomenon phenomena
datum data tooth teeth
diagnosis diagnoses thesis theses
Table 2: Nouns with same spelling of singular and plural forms
Singular Plural Singular Plural

48. Singular Plural
ghetto ghettos, ghettoes
hoof hoofs, hooves
index indexes, indices
mango mangos, mangoes
media media, mediums
radius radii, radiuses
stigma stigmas, stigmata
trauma traumas, traumata
volcano volcanos, volcanoes
wharf wharfs, wharves
47
cod cod salmon salmon
deer deer series series
moose moose sheep sheep
Table 3: Singular nouns with two plural form spellings
Singular Plural
apex apexes, apices
brother brothers, brethren
buffalo buffalos, buffaloes
cactus cactuses, cacti
cargo cargos, cargoes
curriculum curriculums, curricula
domino dominos, dominoes
dwarf dwarfs, dwarves
elk elk, elks
fish fish, fishes
Table 4: Collective Nouns
These nouns generally take the singular form of the verb.
Army club crowd league
Band cluster family litter
Batch committee flock pack (of wolves)
Brood community gang school (of fish)
Brigade company group team
Choir congregation guild litter
Class crew herd union
Table 5: Nouns plural in form but singular in meaning
The singular form of the verb is used with these nouns.

49. 48
aeronautics measles Philippines shambles
billiards mechanics phlebitis statistics (school course)
civics molasses phonetics The Manila Times
diabetes mumps physics United Nations
economics news politics United States
mathematics optics rickets Wales
Table 6: Nouns composed of parts in pairs
These take the plural form of the verb. They take the singular form of the verb when
they have the expression “a pair of” before them.
binoculars jeans pliers spectacles
braces overalls scissors socks
clippers pajamas shears tongs
eyeglasses pants shorts trousers
forceps pincers slacks tweezers
Table 7: Nouns plural in form and in meaning
The plural form of the verb is used with these nouns.
alms clothes lyrics premises suds
antics contents manners proceedings surroundings
archives eaves mores proceeds thanks
assets gallows nuptials relations tidings
ashes goods oats remains wages
belongings grounds outdoors riches whereabouts
briefs hysterics outskirts statistics (facts) winnings

50. 49
Appendix B: Nouns in Gender
Table 1: People Nouns
Male Female Male Female
actor actress heir heiress
anchorman anchorwoman host hostess
baron baroness lad lass
bartender barmaid marquis/marquess marchioness
best man maid of honor murderer murderess
bridegroom bride nephew niece
count/ earl countess danseur ballerina
director directress sculptor sculptress
dominator dominatrix steward stewardess
duke duchess uncle aunt
emperor empress warlock witch
executor executrix widower widow
Table 2: Animal Nouns
Male Female
bull cow
deer doe
dog bitch
gander goose
stallion mare
ram ewe
Appendix C: Noun Transformation
Noun Verb
-age (stoppage)
-ce (hindrance)
-ness (loveliness)
-or (actor)
-ate (create)
-er (transfer

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-cy (democracy)
-dom (wisdom)
-ion (admission)
-ism (Hinduism)
-ity (clarity
-ment (argument)
-ship (friendship)
-sy (leprosy)
-tion (creation)
-ty (humility)
-ure (seizure)
-en (widen)
-fy (pacify
-ize (maximize)
Adjective Adverb
-able (capable)
-al (tropical)
-ant (distant)
-ent (different)
-ful (grateful)
-ible (loveliness)
-ic (angelic)
-less (countless)
-ly (friendly)
-ous (pious)
-ly (terribly)
(carefully)
(humbly)
Appendix E: Mass Nouns and Count Nouns
The following mass nouns are generally singular in form and in meaning. However, to
quantify them, one may add partitive nouns or quantifiers to these nouns. On the other
hand, the count nouns given on the second column of each table may be made plural
by adding –s, -ies, or –es after the noun.
Table 1: Food Nouns
Mass Count
bread* pizza
butter rice
chocolate* salad
juice* salt
mayonnaise soda
meat* soup
cake(s)
cookie(s)
nut(s)
patty(ies)
sandwich(es)
vegetable(s)

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milk sugar
oil* toast
wafer(s)
Those with asterisk (*) may be considered count nouns; therefore, -smay be
added after them. For instance, one may say “juices” to mean liquid coming out of meat.
Table 2: Natural Substances
Mass Count
air steam
hail sunlight
lightning thunder
oxygen water
rain weather
smoke wind
snow
hailstone(s)
raindrop(s)
snowflake(s)