RESEARCH METHODOLOGY.pptx

RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
GUIDED BY – PRESENTED BY –
DR SHALU RAI (HEAD AND PROFESSOR) DR PRIYANKA
DR DEEPANKAR MISRA (PROFESSOR)
DR PUNEET BHATNAGAR (READER)
DR MUKUL (READER)
DR SAHIL KIDWAI (SENIOR LECTURER)
DR SUMAN BISLA (SENIOR LECTURER)

CONTENTS
 INTRODUCTION
 OBJECTIVES
 TYPES OF RESEARCH
 RESEARCH PROCESS
 RESEARCH PROBLEM
 BROAD LITERATURE SURVEY
 HYPOTHESIS FORMULATION
 PREPARATION OF RESEARCH DESIGN

CONTENT CONT…
 SAMPLING – PROBABILITY AND NON PROBABILITY
 COLLECTION OF DATA
 ANALYSIS OF DATA
 HYPOTHESIS TESTING
 PREPARATION OF REPORT
 CRITERIA OF GOOD RESEARCH
 PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED BY RESEARCHER IN INDIA
 REFERENCES

 Research is related to seek out the information and knowledge on a particular topic or subject
Research methodology is the approach in which research troubles are solved thoroughly.
According to Clifford Woody
research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested
solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching
conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the
formulating hypothesis.
According to Redman and Mory
systematic effort to gain new knowledge
Public health dentistry – john j

reality and facts (
unknown & not
exposed)
new insights into it
To test a hypothesis
of a causal
relationship between
different variables
characteristics of a
particular character
the relationship with
which something
occur or something
else

(i) Descriptive vs. Analytical
(ii) Applied vs. Fundamental
(iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative
(iv) Conceptual vs. Empirical
(v) One time research or longitudinal research
(vi) Field settling or laboratory
(vii) Clinical or diagnostic research
(viii) Exploratory research
(ix) Historical research
(x) Conclusion oriented research
(xi) Decision oriented research
Research methodology 2nd edition- C R kothari

Concerned with testing hypothesis and
interpretating relationships , by analyzing
the facts or information already available
survey and facts ( provide data – etiology , types
and magnitude in community exist at present )
scientist does not have direct control over the
variables; he can only report what is happening or
what has happened
Leads the path for further research with regard to
particular disease problem

finding a solution -- for specific,
practical problem facing by an
individual, society or an industrial or
business organization,
Improve on existing knowledge without
defined goal
is mainly concerned with overview and
with the formulation of a theory.
This is pure and basic type of research,

 expressed in terms of quantity or
something that can be counted
concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e.,
relating to quality or variety.
 typically descriptive and harder to analyze
than quantitative data.
 involves looking in-depth at non-numerical
data.

related to some abstract idea(s) or theory.
 develop new concept or reinterpret existing ones
 It is generally used by logicians, philosophers and
theorist
 It is a way of gaining knowledge by means of direct and
indirect observation or experience.
also refer it as experimental type of research.
 it is necessary to get the facts and data firstly, their
source, and then actively engaged to doing certain things to
stimulate the production of desired information.

.
In the former case
the research is restricted to a single
time-period
In the latter case
the research is carried on over several
time periods

carried out in field carried out in lab

Historical research
use of historical resource
like documents, papers,
leaflets remains, etc
to study events or thoughts of the past,
including the philosophy of persons
and groups at any point of time

Conclusion oriented & Decision oriented research
a researcher having free thinking to
choose a problem, redesign the queries
as he proceeds and is prepared to
conceptualize as he wants
always for the need of a decision maker
and the researcher
not free to get on research according to
his own preference

Research Methodology Part II
 RESEARCH DESIGN
 RESEARCH PROBLEM
 BROAD LITERATURE SURVEY
 HYPOTHESIS FORMULATION
 PREPARATION OF RESEARCH DESIGN
 SAMPLING – PROBABILITY AND NON PROBABILITY
 COLLECTION OF DATA
 ANALYSIS OF DATA
 HYPOTHESIS TESTING
 PREPARATION OF REPORT
 CRITERIA OF GOOD RESEARCH
 PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED BY RESEARCHER IN INDIA
 REFERENCES

Systematic reviews and meta-analyses
 gold standard - because of their strict protocols to reduce bias and to synthesize and analyze already completed
studies.
 scientific tool – clearly formulated question that use systematic methods to identify , select and critically appraise
relevant research – collect and analyze the data from study that are included in review
 evaluate existing or new technologies and practices efficiently and consider the totality of available evidence.
 Meta-analysis uses works consisting of studies using a quantitative method of combining the results of
independent studies and synthesizing summaries and conclusions which may be used to evaluate therapeutic
effectiveness, plan new studies, etc.
Mithun Pai BH, Rajesh G, Shenoy R. Research design hierarchy: Strength of evidence in evidence-based dentistry. J Interdiscip Dentistry 2012;2:158-
63.

Randomized controlled trials
 RCTs are the gold standard by which all clinical research is judged.
 This is the strongest type of experimental design in which subjects are randomly assigned to experimental
and control groups to support cause and effect relationships
 subjects are randomly allocated to receive active treatment or a control (placebo, no treatment, or even an
active control), each patient has an equal chance of assignment
 Done to compare the effectiveness of a new drug against a gold standard old one in any given disease
 They are typically expensive, time consuming, and designed to answer a single question or small number of
questions about treatment efficacy that are usually narrow in scope and are unbiased.

cohort studies
 Can be prospective or retrospective
 Involve study of groups based upon exposure or intervention and assess for difference in outcome
 RCT – randomly assigned prospective cohort – groups are investigated
 Random assignment in retrospective cohort is not possible
 Require large sample size
 Time consuming
 Not reliable as RCTs since two groups may differ in ways other than variable under study

Case control studies
 Comparisons are made between groups based on an outcome rather than an exposure or intervention
 Designed to test the association between condition and risk factor
 Ex- cancer pts are asked what kind of spicy food they have eaten in past and the answers would be compared
with control group without the disease
 Done quickly and very efficient for condition/ disease with rare outcome
 Less reliable than RCTs / cohort studies

Cross sectional studies
 Snapshot of situation and assess disease and exposure status of population at one particular time point
 Weight ,Oral hygiene practice, dental caries experience is collected in particular population at one point in
time
 Cost effective, completed in short time, initial association observed can be used to formulate further research
for stronger level of evidence
 Prone to biases like recall or selection bias

Case series and case reports
 Used to illustrate an aspect of a condition, treatment or the adverse reaction to treatment
 Patient with unfamiliar condition, rare syndrome case report – help to decide a direction of treatment or to
assist a diagnosis
 Easy to understand and can be written in short time

Research process
 each step is specific and they are separate and distinct from each other
1) Identification of research problem
2) Broad literature survey
3) Hypothesis formulation
4) Preparation of research design
5) Determining sample design
6) Data collection
7) Analysis of data
8) Hypothesis testing
9) Generalizations and interpretation
10) Preparation of the report or presentation of the results
Handbook of Research Methodology- Shanti Bhushan Mishra, Shashi Alok

PREINVESTIGATION STEPS
1.Formulating the research problem
2.Extensive literature survey
3.Developing the hypothesis
4.Preparing the research design
5.Determining sample design
INVESTIGATION STEPS
6.Collection of the data
7.Execution of the project
POST INVESTIGATION STEPS
8.Analysis of data
9.Hypothesis testing
10.Generalisations and interpretation
11.Preparation of the report or presentation of the results.

RESEARCH PROBLEM
 based on the area of interest of the researcher
 Types- state of nature , relationship between variables
 could be a life-threatening epidemic or a chronic disease condition burdening the health care system.
 problem may be discussed in a broad way and then the doubts, if any, relating to the problem may be
resolved.
 Formulating the research – understand the problem , rephasing it into meaningful term
Handbook of Research Methodology- Shanti Bhushan Mishra, Shashi
Alok

Techniques involved in defining a problem
statement of the
problem in general
way
understanding the
nature of the
problem
c.surveying the
available literature
developing the ideas
through discussion
rephasing the
research problem

BROAD LITERATURE SURVEY
the researcher must study all available literature to get himself familiar with the selected problem
 may review two types of literature
first is the conceptual literature which is related to the concepts and theories,
second is the empirical literature which consisting of previous studies similar to the proposed research
problem
 important step in the entire research process.
 Once the problem is formulated, a synopsis of it should be written down.

HYPOTHESIS FORMULATION
 A hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical and empirical
consequences.
 They not only have an effect on the type of data to be collected but also on the analyzing and outcome
measures.
 It sharpens the researcher’s thinking and focus on the important facts of the problem.
 Guide – delimiting the area of research and to keep him on right track

 SIMPLE HYPOTHESIS –
one in which there exists relationship between two variables one is called independent variable or cause and
other is dependent variable or effect
ex – smoking leads to cancer
 COMPLEX HYPOTHESIS –
one in which as relationship among variable exists, in this dependent or independent are more than two
ex – smoking and chewing tobacco leads to cancer, tuberculosis
 EMPIRICAL HYPOTHESIS –
on which is applied to a field . During formulation , it is an assumption only but when it is pat to test it become
an empirical / working hypothesis


 NULL HYPOTHESIS –
no relationship between dependent and independent variable .
It is denoted by HO
Ex- pt with diabetes raised BP
 ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS –
firstly, many hypothesis are selected then among them select one which is more workable and most efficient.
It is denoted by HI.
 Handbook of Research Methodology- Shanti Bhushan Mishra, Shashi Alok

 LOGICAL HYPOTHESIS-
it is that type in which hypothesis is verified logically.
 STATISTICAL HYPOTHESIS –
a hypothesis can be verified statistically
The statement would be logical or illogical but if statistic verifies, it will be statistical hypothesis .

PREPARATION OF RESEARCH DESIGN:
 A good research design will be prepared if a research problem should be stated clearly
 It comprises the outline for the collection, measurement, and analysis of data.
 A flexible research design which offers the opportunity for allowing the different aspects of a problem is
considered suitable
 the first three steps in research process will greatly determine the research design .
 The main function to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time
and money

DETERMINING SAMPLE DESIGN
 Every object that involve in any type of inquiry constitute a ‘population’.
 A complete detail of any object in the ‘population’ is known as a census inquiry
 Several types of designs are available to collect research information about individuals with diseases and
conditions.
 Sampling can be defined as the investigation of part of a population, in order to provide information, which
can then be generalized to cover the whole population.
 sampling is the process or technique of selecting a sample of appropriate characteristics and adequate size.

Sampling is of 2 types—probability sampling and non-probability sampling.
 In probability sampling,
an element in a target population will be selected is known.
the sample is representative of the population.
 In non-probability sampling,
an element in a target population will be selected in the sample is unknown
the sample is not representative of the population.

Types of Sampling Techniques
Probability sampling
 Simple random
 Stratified random
 Systematic random
 Area/cluster sampling
Non-probability sampling
 Accidental/convenience
 Judgement/purposive
 Network/snowball
 Quota sampling
 Dimensional sampling
 Mixed sampling

a. Simple Random Sampling
 Every member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample.
 This type of sampling is used when the population in homogenous.
 There are several methods of achieving random selection, e.g. lottery method , table of random numbers.

b. Stratified Random Sampling
 The sample is deliberately drawn in a systematic way so that each portion of the sample represents a
corresponding strata of the population.
 The population is heterogeneous.
 This method is useful when one is interested in analyzing the data by a certain characteristic of population.
 For example, In a population of 1000, sample of 100 is to be drawn for Hemoglobin estimation; first convert
non-homogenous population is converted to homogenous strata (i.e. 700 males and 300 females), then draw
70 males and 30 females randomly respectively.

c. Systematic Random Sampling
 This process involves the selection of certain elements in a series according to predetermined sequence.
 To explain this we will take, e.g. to carry out a gingivitis survey in a town, we can take 10% sample.
 For example, if there is a population of 1000 from which sample of 20 is to be chosen, then K = 1000/20 =
50; thus every 50th unit will be included in the sample (i.e. 1st, 51st, 101st, so on…) First unit among first 50
is chosen by simple random sampling
 By this method, each unit in the sampling frame would have the same chance of being selected, but the
number of possible samples is greatly reduced.
 The population can be heterogeneous.

d. Area or Cluster Sampling
 Applicable when units of population are natural groups or clusters
 Ex- villages, wards blocks or children

e. Multiphase sampling
For example, in a school health survey, children in the school are examined.
 From these, only the ones with oral health problems are selected in the second phase.
A section needing treatment are selected in the third phase.
The number of children in the sub-samples in the 3rd and 4th phase becomes smaller and
smaller.
f. Multistage sampling
 The first stage is to select the groups or clusters. Then subsamples are taken in as many subsequent stages
as necessary
 In a multistage random sampling, a large scale of survey is used.
 For example, in large country surveys, states are chosen, then districts, then villages, then person in village
as final sampling unit

a. Accidental or Convenience Sampling
 One will not always be able to randomly sample from the population of interest.
 examine the people you are able to contact or get access to even though they are not representative of the
population. ( volunteers )
 inexpensive and less time consuming.
 For example, standing at a shopping mall and selecting shoppers as they walk by to fill out a survey.

b. Judgement or Purposive Sampling
 purposive sample is non representative subset of some larger population, and is constructed
to serve a very specific need or purpose .
 When this approach is used, the quality of sample selected depends on the accuracy of the
researchers judgement of what constitutes a typical sample.
 in a study on oral hygiene in an urban school, representative students may be picked,
examined and assessed for poor oral hygiene

c. Network or Snowball Sampling
 This involves a multistage technique that utilizes social network of individuals who tend to share common
characteristics.
 The researcher must first identify and interview a few subjects with requisite criteria.
 These subjects are then asked to identify others with the same criteria.
 These persons may be then asked to identify others until a satisfactory sample is obtained.
 This procedure is useful for finding subjects who may not be willing to make themselves known in the
population. For example, alcoholics, drug addicts, child abusers, etc.

d. Quota Sampling
 involves the selection of proportional samples of subgroups within a target population to ensure generalization of
findings.
 ensures the inclusion of population subgroups that are likely to be under represented.
 For example, racial minorities, poor and the very rich.

e. Dimensional Sampling
 only a small sample is needed, since each selected case will be examined in more detail.
f. Mixed Sampling Designs
 Mixed sampling designs constitute the combination of both probability and non-probability sampling
procedures.

Sampling Frame
 A sampling frame is a total of elements of survey population, redefined according to certain specification.
 The accuracy and completeness of the sampling frame influence the quality of the sample .
 Sometimes a list of all individuals in the target population will be available.
 ex- age sex register in a health center.
Use of Sampling
 Sampling may be the only way to obtain information about a population, because the true extent of the
population is unknown, or even if it were known access to the whole population is impossible.
 The need to reduce labor.
 Savings in time, manpower and money.
Preventive and community dentistry – JOHN J

SAMPLING SIZE
 Depend upon extent to which sample population represent the general population
 factors:
i. Type of study ( descriptive , experimental )
ii. Variability of population
iii. Number of variables ( variable increase, size increase )
iv. Level of precision ( error small, more precise )
v. Sensitivity of measurement tools
vi. Sampling method employed
vii. Data analysis techniques

ERROR IN SAMPLING
 two types of errors -, sampling error and non-sampling error.
 The sampling errors - due to the sampling process and could arise because of faulty sample design or due to
the small size of the sample.
 The non-sampling errors arise due to
a) Coverage error - due to non-response or non-cooperation of the informant.
b) Observational error - Due to interviewers bias or imperfect experimental technique or interaction
of both.
c) Processing error - due to errors in statistical analysis.

COLLECTING THE DATA
 Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey.
 If the researcher conducts an experiment, quantitative measurements are made.
 But in case of a survey, data can be collected by any one or more of the following ways: Observation, personal
interview, telephone interviews, mailed questionnaires.

TYPES OF DATA
• Primary
• Secondary
• Qualitative
• Quantitative
• Nominal
• Ordinal
• Interval
• Ratio

Primary Data :
• Which are collected afresh and for the first time
• Original in character
Secondary Data :
• Already been collected by someone else.
• Already been passed through the statistical process.

Qualitative Data :
• When data is collected on the basis of attributes or qualities like gender, occupation, marital status.
Quantitative Data :
• That yields observation that can be measured.
• Ex- height, weight, blood pressure.

Nominal Data :
• Consists of named categories, with no implied order among the categories.
Ordinal Data :
• Consists of ordered categories, where differences between categories cannot be considered to be equal.

Interval Data :
• Has equal distances between values, but the zero point is arbitrary.
Ex- IQ =70 OR 80, 120 OR 130, 50 OR 100.
Ratio Data :
• Has equal intervals between values and a meaningful zero point. Ex- comparison of weights or heights.

 Reliability
 Suitability
 Adequacy

1. Reliability of data:
The reliability can be tested by finding out such things about the said data:
(a) Who collected the data?
(b) What were the sources of data?
(c) Were they collected by using proper methods
(d) At what time were they collected?
(e) Was there any bias?
(f) What level of accuracy was desired? Was it achieved ?

 2. Suitability of data:
The data that are suitable for one enquiry may not necessarily be found suitable in another enquiry. Hence, if
the available data are found to be unsuitable, they should not be used by the researcher.
 3. Adequacy of data:
If the level of accuracy achieved in data is found inadequate for the purpose of the present enquiry, they will
be considered as inadequate and should not be used by the researcher. The data will also be considered
inadequate, if they are related to an area which may be either narrower or wider than the area of the present
enquiry.

ANALYSIS OF DATA
 The data collected from a survey or an experimental trial is called a raw data.
 This further has to be subjected to coding, tabulation, in order to make it a processed data, so that it can
further be subjected to statistical analysis.
1. Raw data is transformed into useful and purposeful categories
2. Coding operation—categories are transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and counted.
3. Editing—it improves the quality of the data.
4. Tabulation—classified data are presented in tables.

HYPOTHESIS TESTING
 After analyzing the data, the processed data is subjected to statistical tests which will help to either accept the
proposed hypothesis or vice versa.
 If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, generalizations established on the basis of data may be
stated as hypotheses to be tested by further researches

Tests of Statistical Significance
Parametric tests
Paired Student’s t-test
Unpaired Student’s t-test
Z – test
ANOVA test (F-test/F-ratio)
Non-parametric tests
Sign test
Chi-square test (c2 – test)
Fischer’s test
Wilcoxan tests
Mann-Whitney test

SAMPLE PARAMETRIC NON PARAMETRIC
1 sample- <30 ‘t’ test F-test
1 sample- >30 Z- test Wilcoxon test
2 sample- paired Paired ‘t’ test Wilcoxon matched pairs signed
rank test
2 sample- independent Unpaired ‘t’ test Chi- square test
Mann whitney test
2 sample- linear relationship Pearson correlation Spearman correlation
>2 sample ANOVA test Kruskal wallis test

PREPARATION OF THE REPORT
 The layout of the report should be as follows:
(a) Prologue—title and date, acknowledgments, foreword, table of contents, list of tables, graphs and
charts
(b) Main text—introduction, review of literature, materials and methods, results, discussion, summary
and conclusion.
(c) Epilogue—appendix for all technical data, bibliography or references.

Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language
Only relevant charts and illustrations should be used, repetition of data in charts and text should be avoided.
Any conflicts of interest encountered during the time of research should be mentioned.
Plagiarism should be avoided.
Extrapolation of the data or falsification of the results to show statistical significance should be avoided

CRITERIA OF GOOD RESEARCH
 purpose should be clearly defined
 Procedure should be described in sufficient detail to permit another researcher to repeat the research for further
advancement.
 Design should be carefully planned to yield result
 Report should be with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design estimate their effects upon the findings
 Conclusion should be confined to those justified by the data of the research

PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED BY
RESEARCHER IN INDIA
 The lack of scientific training in methodology
 insufficient interaction between university research departments
 Most of the units do not have confidence that the material supplied by them will not misused .
 Library management and functioning is not satisfactory at many places
 libraries are not able to get copies of old and new Acts/Rules, reports and other government publications in time.

REFERENCES
 Preventive and community dentistry 3RD edition– JOHN J
 Research methodology 2nd edition- C R kothari
 Handbook of Research Methodology- Shanti Bhushan Mishra, Shashi Alok
 Mithun Pai BH, Rajesh G, Shenoy R. Research design hierarchy: Strength of evidence in evidence-based
dentistry. J Interdiscip Dentistry 2012;2:158-63.

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