Galvanized Steel Manufacturing
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Corrosion costs the United States $297 billion annually, but utilizing adequate corrosion protection systems can drastically reduce these costs. Galvanized steel provides effective corrosion protection through a process of dipping steel parts in a molten zinc bath to form a zinc coating. The manufacturing process for galvanized steel towers involves planning, acquiring raw steel materials, fabrication through cutting and bending, hot dip galvanization by passing the steel through molten zinc, and quality testing to check coating thickness and uniformity.
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All About Galvanized Steel
In the world of flatroll steel, galvanized remains a top choice for corrosion protection, price, availability, and versatility. Galvanized steel is steel that has been applied with a protective zinc coating, which inhibits oxidation, or rusting and corrosion.
At Pacesetter, we offer a number of galvanized products.
Steel melting shop
The document provides information about the steel melting shop (SMS) at Jindal Steel and Power Limited (JSPL) Raigarh plant. The key points are:
1. The SMS has a capacity of 3.2 million tonnes per year and includes 3 electric arc furnaces, a ladle refining furnace, and vacuum degassing units.
2. The melting process involves charging raw materials into the electric arc furnaces and applying electrical energy to melt them. Secondary refining then occurs in the ladle refining furnace and vacuum degassing units.
3. Final products are continuously cast into blooms, billets, rounds and other sections using various casters like the
bhushan-traioning-report-
This document provides a summer training report submitted by an engineering student on their training at Bhushan Steel Ltd. It includes:
- An introduction describing the various cold rolling mill operations studied during the training.
- Sections on different production areas visited including Hot Rolling Slitter, Pickling Line, Electrolytic Cleaning Line, Annealing, Skin Pass Mill, and more.
- Information on the company profile, products, processes, facilities and certifications of Bhushan Steel Ltd.
- Technical specifications and details of processes, equipment and products.
Cast Iron
This document provides information on various types of cast iron:
- White cast iron forms massive carbides when iron cools rapidly, making it very hard but brittle. It is used for abrasion resistance.
- Grey cast iron contains flake graphite in a matrix, giving it good machinability and vibration damping. It is widely used for machine parts.
- Ductile or nodular cast iron has graphite in spherical nodules, making it much more ductile than grey cast iron. It has applications in machinery.
- Malleable cast iron and spheroidal graphite cast iron undergo heat treatments to form irregular graphite clusters, resulting in properties between ductile iron and steel.
Engineering materials
This presentation gives a brief introduction to ferrous and non-ferrous materials.
Keywords: Classification, Steels, Cast irons, Nonferrous alloys
Cast iron its types , properties and its applications....
Cast iron its types , properties and its applications....NED University of Engineering and Technology
this presentation is concern with the different types of cast iron its compositions and its properties.....and its applicationsBreakouts Problem during continuous casting of steel
1.This slide is about causes of breakouts during continuous casting of steel and remedies about the same
2. It will help to reduce breakouts problem during continuous casting of steel up to 80%
Rolling process
Rolling is a metal forming process where metal stock is passed through one or more pairs of rolls to reduce the thickness and change the cross section of the metal. There are both hot and cold rolling processes. The metal is compressed between the rolls through frictional forces, changing the shape of the metal. Rolling processes can produce shapes like plates, sheets, rods, bars, pipes and rails. Rolling mills can have two, three, four or multiple rolls depending on the specific application and required shape. Rolling is used to mass produce metal products and form complex cross sections.
Recommended
All About Galvanized Steel
In the world of flatroll steel, galvanized remains a top choice for corrosion protection, price, availability, and versatility. Galvanized steel is steel that has been applied with a protective zinc coating, which inhibits oxidation, or rusting and corrosion.
At Pacesetter, we offer a number of galvanized products.
Steel melting shop
The document provides information about the steel melting shop (SMS) at Jindal Steel and Power Limited (JSPL) Raigarh plant. The key points are:
1. The SMS has a capacity of 3.2 million tonnes per year and includes 3 electric arc furnaces, a ladle refining furnace, and vacuum degassing units.
2. The melting process involves charging raw materials into the electric arc furnaces and applying electrical energy to melt them. Secondary refining then occurs in the ladle refining furnace and vacuum degassing units.
3. Final products are continuously cast into blooms, billets, rounds and other sections using various casters like the
bhushan-traioning-report-
This document provides a summer training report submitted by an engineering student on their training at Bhushan Steel Ltd. It includes:
- An introduction describing the various cold rolling mill operations studied during the training.
- Sections on different production areas visited including Hot Rolling Slitter, Pickling Line, Electrolytic Cleaning Line, Annealing, Skin Pass Mill, and more.
- Information on the company profile, products, processes, facilities and certifications of Bhushan Steel Ltd.
- Technical specifications and details of processes, equipment and products.
Cast Iron
This document provides information on various types of cast iron:
- White cast iron forms massive carbides when iron cools rapidly, making it very hard but brittle. It is used for abrasion resistance.
- Grey cast iron contains flake graphite in a matrix, giving it good machinability and vibration damping. It is widely used for machine parts.
- Ductile or nodular cast iron has graphite in spherical nodules, making it much more ductile than grey cast iron. It has applications in machinery.
- Malleable cast iron and spheroidal graphite cast iron undergo heat treatments to form irregular graphite clusters, resulting in properties between ductile iron and steel.
Engineering materials
This presentation gives a brief introduction to ferrous and non-ferrous materials.
Keywords: Classification, Steels, Cast irons, Nonferrous alloys
Cast iron its types , properties and its applications....
Cast iron its types , properties and its applications....NED University of Engineering and Technology
this presentation is concern with the different types of cast iron its compositions and its properties.....and its applicationsBreakouts Problem during continuous casting of steel
1.This slide is about causes of breakouts during continuous casting of steel and remedies about the same
2. It will help to reduce breakouts problem during continuous casting of steel up to 80%
Rolling process
Rolling is a metal forming process where metal stock is passed through one or more pairs of rolls to reduce the thickness and change the cross section of the metal. There are both hot and cold rolling processes. The metal is compressed between the rolls through frictional forces, changing the shape of the metal. Rolling processes can produce shapes like plates, sheets, rods, bars, pipes and rails. Rolling mills can have two, three, four or multiple rolls depending on the specific application and required shape. Rolling is used to mass produce metal products and form complex cross sections.
Stainless steel
Stainless steels contain 10.5-30% chromium which forms a passive oxide layer protecting the steel from corrosion. Common types include martensitic, ferritic, austenitic, and duplex stainless steels. Martensitic stainless steels can be hardened through heat treatment while ferritic stainless steels have higher ductility and corrosion resistance. Duplex stainless steels have a mixed austenite and ferrite structure providing high strength and pitting/stress corrosion resistance. Austenitic stainless steels have excellent ductility and toughness down to cryogenic temperatures and are widely used in chemical plants and food processing. Proper welding techniques are required to prevent issues like sensitization, hot cracking, and sigma
Zinc Production and Galvanizing
Galvanization or galvanizing is the process of applying a protective zinc coating to steel or iron, to prevent rusting. The most common method is hot-dip galvanizing, in which the parts are submerged in a bath of molten zinc.
Hardening process
The document discusses the hardening process used to increase the hardness of metals. Hardening involves heating metals to their hardening temperature, holding at that temperature, and then rapidly cooling via quenching. This rapid cooling results in the formation of martensite, giving the metal a high hardness. The main purposes of hardening are to improve wear resistance, tensile strength, and yield strength. Factors like chemical composition, size and shape of the metal, and the quenching medium used affect how effective the hardening process is. Various hardening methods are discussed, like conventional quenching, quenching in stages, spray quenching, and quenching with self-tempering. Hardened metals find
Ductile iron
This document summarizes a seminar on ductile iron. Ductile iron has graphite present in the form of spheroids or nodules, giving it higher ductility than cast iron. It has high strength similar to steel, good castability, machinability, and damping characteristics. Ductile iron production involves melting base iron, desulfurization, magnesium treatment, and post-inoculation. Magnesium treatment is important for nodularization and occurs via various methods like open ladle transfer, tundish cover, or in-mold. Ductile iron finds applications in components like crankshafts, brake parts, and gears due to its combination of castability and mechanical properties.
Heat treatment processes
The document discusses various heat treatment processes used to change the properties and performance of metals. It describes the main stages of heat treatment as heating, soaking, and cooling. Common heat treatment processes include annealing to soften metals, normalizing to refine grains and increase strength, hardening to increase hardness and strength, and tempering to increase toughness after hardening. Specific methods like carburizing, cyaniding, nitriding, and flame hardening are used to case harden metal surfaces. Industries like aerospace, automotive, and defense commonly use heat treating.
Galvanizing Methods
Galvanizing is a process that provides corrosion protection to steel by applying a zinc coating. There are three main galvanizing methods: hot dipping steel in molten zinc, electroplating zinc onto steel, and galvannealing which involves galvanizing followed by annealing. Hot dip galvanizing provides a thick, uniform zinc coating and is commonly used for construction applications. Electrogalvanizing produces a thinner coating suitable for parts that require shaping after coating. Galvannealing improves formability and paintability. Aluminized steel uses a hot dip process with aluminum instead of zinc to provide corrosion resistance at higher temperatures.
Rolling Process
The document summarizes the rolling process. It defines rolling as plastically deforming metal by passing it between rolls. Rolling provides close dimensional control and high production. There are two main types: hot rolling and cold rolling. The document describes various rolling terminologies, mill products, defects, and different rolling processes like hot rolling, cold rolling, shaped rolling, and thread rolling. It also discusses factors like angle of contact, forces involved, and how to control flatness.
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This document discusses sheet metal operations and core manufacturing in casting. It defines cores as models of interior surfaces that are inserted into molds. Cores require supports like chaplets to hold them in position. The document outlines core parts, types, characteristics, functions and manufacturing. Cores are made of sand or metal and can be horizontal, vertical, balanced or hanging depending on their shape and position in molds. Core boxes are used to form cores and come in types like half, split, dump and loose piece. Core prints secure cores and must withstand forces from the molten metal. The document provides equations and guidelines for proper core print sizing.
Study Of Bleeding Breakout In Thin Slab Caster
This documentation deals with the all the processes and sub-processes undergoing in the newly installed department in Tata Steel ,i.e., LD3 & TSCR, mainly focussing on "Bleeding Breakout" problem in TSCR shop.
Steel Making: Ingot casting
Molten steel is tapped into a ladle and alloying elements are added before being cast into molds. Steel ingots can have square, round, or polygon cross-sections depending on their intended use - squares for rolling, rectangles for flat products, and rounds for tubes. Ingot casting molds are made of cast iron and come in two types - wide end up or narrow end up. As the steel solidifies in the mold, it forms three distinct zones - a thin chill zone against the mold walls, columnar zones of elongated crystals perpendicular to the walls, and an inner equiaxed zone of larger isotropic crystals.
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Steel Fabrication is the process involved in shaping, cutting and assembling components which are designed with steel. Industries in the fabricated steel sector transform steel into intermediate or end products, other than machinery, metal furniture, or treat metals and metal formed products fabricated elsewhere. Important fabricated steel processes are forging, stamping, bending, forming, and machining, used to shape individual pieces of the metal; and other processes, such as welding and assembling, used to join separate parts together.
See more
https://goo.gl/Sn3Vf6
https://goo.gl/egiqNd
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Contact us:
Niir Project Consultancy Services
An ISO 9001:2015 Company
106-E, Kamla Nagar, Opp. Spark Mall,
New Delhi-110007, India.
Email: npcs.ei@gmail.com , info@entrepreneurindia.co
Tel: +91-11-23843955, 23845654, 23845886, 8800733955
Mobile: +91-9811043595
Website: www.entrepreneurindia.co , www.niir.org
Tags
#Steel_Fabrication, #Structural_Steel_Fabrication, #Metal_Fabrication, Structural Steel Fabrication Process, #Steel_Fabricating_Process, Steel Fabrication Process Flow Chart, Metal Fabrication Process, #Metal_Fabrication_Industry, Structural Steel Design & Fabrication Process, Steel Fabrication Unit, Industrial Construction, #Steel_Fabrication_Industry, Commercial Industrial Steel Fabrication, Industrial Fabrication, Applications of Metal Fabrication, Steel Manufacturing Industry, Commercial Metal Fabrication, Fabricated Structural Metal Manufacturing, Fabrication Business Ideas, #How_to_Start_your_own_Steel_Fabrication_Business, Fabrication Business Opportunities in India, Start a Metal Fabrication Business, #How_to_Start_a_Steel_Fabricators Business, Starting a Steel Fabrication Business, Want to Start a Steel Fabrication Business, Best Fabrication Business Ideas, How to Start a Steel Business, Fabrication Business, Profitable Steel Business Ideas, Steel Fabrication Business Ideas, Steel Business Opportunities, Project Report on Steel Fabrication Industry, #Detailed_Project_Report_on_Steel_Fabrication_Business, Project Report on Steel Fabrication, Pre-Investment Feasibility Study on Steel Fabrication, Techno-Economic feasibility study on Steel Fabrication Unit, #Feasibility_report_on_Steel_Fabrication_Industry, Free Project Profile on Steel Fabrication, Project profile on Steel Fabrication Business, Download free project profile on Steel Fabrication Industry
Continuous Casting Steel
The document discusses continuous casting of steel and defects that can occur during the continuous casting process. It provides details on:
- Continuous casting involves delivering liquid metal into a water-cooled copper mold where the cast section is formed and then continuously withdrawn for further solidification. More than 50% of current steel production is continuously cast.
- Defects originate from factors like mold oscillation, mold flux, segregation, and phase transformations. Common defects include cracks, blowholes, inclusions, segregation, and pipes.
- Cracks are caused by mechanical and thermal stresses during casting and processing. Blowholes are caused by insufficient deoxidation or humidity. Inclusions arise from physical-chemical effects
Cast iron
Cast iron is manufactured through a process involving re-melting pig iron with coke and limestone in a cupola furnace. The cupola furnace is cylindrical, about 1m in diameter and 5m tall, and works similarly to a blast furnace by feeding raw materials from the top and applying a blast of air through tuyeres. The molten cast iron is then poured into molds to form castings. There are several types of cast iron including grey, white, mottled, chilled, malleable, and spheroidal graphite iron, which differ in properties like color, hardness, and melting point. Cast iron has properties such as becoming soft when placed in salt water, being hard
Alloy steel
This document provides information on different types of materials, focusing on metals. It classifies materials into metals, polymers, and ceramics. Within metals, it distinguishes between ferrous metals which contain iron and non-ferrous metals which do not. Specific ferrous metals discussed include various grades of steel classified based on their carbon content. Alloy steels are also introduced. Common alloys of steel like stainless steel, nickel steel, and Invar steel are summarized in terms of their composition and properties. End uses of alloys are also briefly covered.
Production of iron and steel
The document discusses materials science and engineering, specifically focusing on the production of iron and steel. It begins with an introduction to materials science and engineering. It then describes the production process of pig iron, including raw material procurement, blast furnace production, and products. It further discusses various steel production methods like basic oxygen furnace and electric arc furnace production. Continuous casting and different steel products are also outlined. In summary, the document provides an overview of the key industrial processes for producing iron and steel, from raw materials to final products.
Refractories and Operation of RH and RH-OB Process
This document discusses refractories and the operation of RH and RH-OB vacuum degassing processes. It provides details on the purpose, activities, and products of various refining units. It also summarizes the theoretical aspects and operational controls of RH processing, including factors that influence the removal of carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen from steel. Finally, it discusses refractory materials used in RH degassers and strategies for improving RH lining performance and extending degasser lifetime.
Heat Treating Basics
This presentation provides an introduction into the basics of heat treating, primarily steel alloys. Heat treat processes for strengthening steel, or through hardening, using quench and temper, martempering, and austempering will be introduced and explained using the iron-carbon phase diagram and time-temperature-transformation diagrams to help understand the transformations occurring.
Precipitation hardening techniques will be introduced, which apply to one group of stainless steels, aluminum alloys and high performance materials. Common surface hardening techniques such as case hardening and carburizing will also be discussed. Various processes for reducing strength, or softening steel, will be presented. Preheat and post-heat treatments applied during welding will also be briefly discussed.
Hardening (Heat treatment) Quenching
The document discusses various aspects of hardening hypoeutectoid and hypereutectoid steels. It explains that hardening involves heating steel to the appropriate temperature, holding, and then rapidly quenching to form martensite. Factors like chemical composition, part size/shape, heating/cooling rates, and quenchant properties influence the hardening process and final properties. Different hardening methods like direct, stage, and self-tempering quenching are also summarized.
Continuous casting
Continuous casting is a process used to cast metal into a continuous length. Molten metal is poured into a mold and solidifies into a casting as it travels downward. New molten metal is continuously supplied to the mold to keep the process going and produce a casting of indefinite length. The process requires precise control of parameters like molten metal flow to ensure smooth, continuous casting.
Cast iron
This document discusses different types of cast iron, including grey cast iron which forms flakes of graphite surrounded by a matrix, white cast iron which forms carbides rather than graphite, and ductile cast iron which contains spherical graphite nodules. It notes the main ingredients of cast iron are iron, carbon, and silicon, and that it contains more of these materials than steel. It provides examples of applications for each type of cast iron.
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This portfolio document introduces Mohamed Farouk Bayomi Elhabshy and summarizes his qualifications and experience. He has over 8 years of experience in QA/QC and welding inspection in the petrochemical, oil, and gas industries. He holds certifications as a Certified Welding Inspector from AWS and Level II NDT inspector certifications. The portfolio provides details of his educational background, work history, projects, training, and certificates to demonstrate his relevant skills and qualifications for welding inspection and QA/QC roles.
Structural steel division, Jindal Steel
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Stainless steel
Stainless steels contain 10.5-30% chromium which forms a passive oxide layer protecting the steel from corrosion. Common types include martensitic, ferritic, austenitic, and duplex stainless steels. Martensitic stainless steels can be hardened through heat treatment while ferritic stainless steels have higher ductility and corrosion resistance. Duplex stainless steels have a mixed austenite and ferrite structure providing high strength and pitting/stress corrosion resistance. Austenitic stainless steels have excellent ductility and toughness down to cryogenic temperatures and are widely used in chemical plants and food processing. Proper welding techniques are required to prevent issues like sensitization, hot cracking, and sigma
Zinc Production and Galvanizing
Galvanization or galvanizing is the process of applying a protective zinc coating to steel or iron, to prevent rusting. The most common method is hot-dip galvanizing, in which the parts are submerged in a bath of molten zinc.
Hardening process
The document discusses the hardening process used to increase the hardness of metals. Hardening involves heating metals to their hardening temperature, holding at that temperature, and then rapidly cooling via quenching. This rapid cooling results in the formation of martensite, giving the metal a high hardness. The main purposes of hardening are to improve wear resistance, tensile strength, and yield strength. Factors like chemical composition, size and shape of the metal, and the quenching medium used affect how effective the hardening process is. Various hardening methods are discussed, like conventional quenching, quenching in stages, spray quenching, and quenching with self-tempering. Hardened metals find
Ductile iron
This document summarizes a seminar on ductile iron. Ductile iron has graphite present in the form of spheroids or nodules, giving it higher ductility than cast iron. It has high strength similar to steel, good castability, machinability, and damping characteristics. Ductile iron production involves melting base iron, desulfurization, magnesium treatment, and post-inoculation. Magnesium treatment is important for nodularization and occurs via various methods like open ladle transfer, tundish cover, or in-mold. Ductile iron finds applications in components like crankshafts, brake parts, and gears due to its combination of castability and mechanical properties.
Heat treatment processes
The document discusses various heat treatment processes used to change the properties and performance of metals. It describes the main stages of heat treatment as heating, soaking, and cooling. Common heat treatment processes include annealing to soften metals, normalizing to refine grains and increase strength, hardening to increase hardness and strength, and tempering to increase toughness after hardening. Specific methods like carburizing, cyaniding, nitriding, and flame hardening are used to case harden metal surfaces. Industries like aerospace, automotive, and defense commonly use heat treating.
Galvanizing Methods
Galvanizing is a process that provides corrosion protection to steel by applying a zinc coating. There are three main galvanizing methods: hot dipping steel in molten zinc, electroplating zinc onto steel, and galvannealing which involves galvanizing followed by annealing. Hot dip galvanizing provides a thick, uniform zinc coating and is commonly used for construction applications. Electrogalvanizing produces a thinner coating suitable for parts that require shaping after coating. Galvannealing improves formability and paintability. Aluminized steel uses a hot dip process with aluminum instead of zinc to provide corrosion resistance at higher temperatures.
Rolling Process
The document summarizes the rolling process. It defines rolling as plastically deforming metal by passing it between rolls. Rolling provides close dimensional control and high production. There are two main types: hot rolling and cold rolling. The document describes various rolling terminologies, mill products, defects, and different rolling processes like hot rolling, cold rolling, shaped rolling, and thread rolling. It also discusses factors like angle of contact, forces involved, and how to control flatness.
U2 p3 core, core prints and chaplets
This document discusses sheet metal operations and core manufacturing in casting. It defines cores as models of interior surfaces that are inserted into molds. Cores require supports like chaplets to hold them in position. The document outlines core parts, types, characteristics, functions and manufacturing. Cores are made of sand or metal and can be horizontal, vertical, balanced or hanging depending on their shape and position in molds. Core boxes are used to form cores and come in types like half, split, dump and loose piece. Core prints secure cores and must withstand forces from the molten metal. The document provides equations and guidelines for proper core print sizing.
Study Of Bleeding Breakout In Thin Slab Caster
This documentation deals with the all the processes and sub-processes undergoing in the newly installed department in Tata Steel ,i.e., LD3 & TSCR, mainly focussing on "Bleeding Breakout" problem in TSCR shop.
Steel Making: Ingot casting
Molten steel is tapped into a ladle and alloying elements are added before being cast into molds. Steel ingots can have square, round, or polygon cross-sections depending on their intended use - squares for rolling, rectangles for flat products, and rounds for tubes. Ingot casting molds are made of cast iron and come in two types - wide end up or narrow end up. As the steel solidifies in the mold, it forms three distinct zones - a thin chill zone against the mold walls, columnar zones of elongated crystals perpendicular to the walls, and an inner equiaxed zone of larger isotropic crystals.
Steel Fabrication Industry
Steel Fabrication Industry. Commercial Metal Fabrication. Profitable Business Ideas in Steel Industry
Steel Fabrication is the process involved in shaping, cutting and assembling components which are designed with steel. Industries in the fabricated steel sector transform steel into intermediate or end products, other than machinery, metal furniture, or treat metals and metal formed products fabricated elsewhere. Important fabricated steel processes are forging, stamping, bending, forming, and machining, used to shape individual pieces of the metal; and other processes, such as welding and assembling, used to join separate parts together.
See more
https://goo.gl/Sn3Vf6
https://goo.gl/egiqNd
https://goo.gl/WVfwfu
Contact us:
Niir Project Consultancy Services
An ISO 9001:2015 Company
106-E, Kamla Nagar, Opp. Spark Mall,
New Delhi-110007, India.
Email: npcs.ei@gmail.com , info@entrepreneurindia.co
Tel: +91-11-23843955, 23845654, 23845886, 8800733955
Mobile: +91-9811043595
Website: www.entrepreneurindia.co , www.niir.org
Tags
#Steel_Fabrication, #Structural_Steel_Fabrication, #Metal_Fabrication, Structural Steel Fabrication Process, #Steel_Fabricating_Process, Steel Fabrication Process Flow Chart, Metal Fabrication Process, #Metal_Fabrication_Industry, Structural Steel Design & Fabrication Process, Steel Fabrication Unit, Industrial Construction, #Steel_Fabrication_Industry, Commercial Industrial Steel Fabrication, Industrial Fabrication, Applications of Metal Fabrication, Steel Manufacturing Industry, Commercial Metal Fabrication, Fabricated Structural Metal Manufacturing, Fabrication Business Ideas, #How_to_Start_your_own_Steel_Fabrication_Business, Fabrication Business Opportunities in India, Start a Metal Fabrication Business, #How_to_Start_a_Steel_Fabricators Business, Starting a Steel Fabrication Business, Want to Start a Steel Fabrication Business, Best Fabrication Business Ideas, How to Start a Steel Business, Fabrication Business, Profitable Steel Business Ideas, Steel Fabrication Business Ideas, Steel Business Opportunities, Project Report on Steel Fabrication Industry, #Detailed_Project_Report_on_Steel_Fabrication_Business, Project Report on Steel Fabrication, Pre-Investment Feasibility Study on Steel Fabrication, Techno-Economic feasibility study on Steel Fabrication Unit, #Feasibility_report_on_Steel_Fabrication_Industry, Free Project Profile on Steel Fabrication, Project profile on Steel Fabrication Business, Download free project profile on Steel Fabrication Industry
Continuous Casting Steel
The document discusses continuous casting of steel and defects that can occur during the continuous casting process. It provides details on:
- Continuous casting involves delivering liquid metal into a water-cooled copper mold where the cast section is formed and then continuously withdrawn for further solidification. More than 50% of current steel production is continuously cast.
- Defects originate from factors like mold oscillation, mold flux, segregation, and phase transformations. Common defects include cracks, blowholes, inclusions, segregation, and pipes.
- Cracks are caused by mechanical and thermal stresses during casting and processing. Blowholes are caused by insufficient deoxidation or humidity. Inclusions arise from physical-chemical effects
Cast iron
Cast iron is manufactured through a process involving re-melting pig iron with coke and limestone in a cupola furnace. The cupola furnace is cylindrical, about 1m in diameter and 5m tall, and works similarly to a blast furnace by feeding raw materials from the top and applying a blast of air through tuyeres. The molten cast iron is then poured into molds to form castings. There are several types of cast iron including grey, white, mottled, chilled, malleable, and spheroidal graphite iron, which differ in properties like color, hardness, and melting point. Cast iron has properties such as becoming soft when placed in salt water, being hard
Alloy steel
This document provides information on different types of materials, focusing on metals. It classifies materials into metals, polymers, and ceramics. Within metals, it distinguishes between ferrous metals which contain iron and non-ferrous metals which do not. Specific ferrous metals discussed include various grades of steel classified based on their carbon content. Alloy steels are also introduced. Common alloys of steel like stainless steel, nickel steel, and Invar steel are summarized in terms of their composition and properties. End uses of alloys are also briefly covered.
Production of iron and steel
The document discusses materials science and engineering, specifically focusing on the production of iron and steel. It begins with an introduction to materials science and engineering. It then describes the production process of pig iron, including raw material procurement, blast furnace production, and products. It further discusses various steel production methods like basic oxygen furnace and electric arc furnace production. Continuous casting and different steel products are also outlined. In summary, the document provides an overview of the key industrial processes for producing iron and steel, from raw materials to final products.
Refractories and Operation of RH and RH-OB Process
This document discusses refractories and the operation of RH and RH-OB vacuum degassing processes. It provides details on the purpose, activities, and products of various refining units. It also summarizes the theoretical aspects and operational controls of RH processing, including factors that influence the removal of carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen from steel. Finally, it discusses refractory materials used in RH degassers and strategies for improving RH lining performance and extending degasser lifetime.
Heat Treating Basics
This presentation provides an introduction into the basics of heat treating, primarily steel alloys. Heat treat processes for strengthening steel, or through hardening, using quench and temper, martempering, and austempering will be introduced and explained using the iron-carbon phase diagram and time-temperature-transformation diagrams to help understand the transformations occurring.
Precipitation hardening techniques will be introduced, which apply to one group of stainless steels, aluminum alloys and high performance materials. Common surface hardening techniques such as case hardening and carburizing will also be discussed. Various processes for reducing strength, or softening steel, will be presented. Preheat and post-heat treatments applied during welding will also be briefly discussed.
Hardening (Heat treatment) Quenching
The document discusses various aspects of hardening hypoeutectoid and hypereutectoid steels. It explains that hardening involves heating steel to the appropriate temperature, holding, and then rapidly quenching to form martensite. Factors like chemical composition, part size/shape, heating/cooling rates, and quenchant properties influence the hardening process and final properties. Different hardening methods like direct, stage, and self-tempering quenching are also summarized.
Continuous casting
Continuous casting is a process used to cast metal into a continuous length. Molten metal is poured into a mold and solidifies into a casting as it travels downward. New molten metal is continuously supplied to the mold to keep the process going and produce a casting of indefinite length. The process requires precise control of parameters like molten metal flow to ensure smooth, continuous casting.
Cast iron
This document discusses different types of cast iron, including grey cast iron which forms flakes of graphite surrounded by a matrix, white cast iron which forms carbides rather than graphite, and ductile cast iron which contains spherical graphite nodules. It notes the main ingredients of cast iron are iron, carbon, and silicon, and that it contains more of these materials than steel. It provides examples of applications for each type of cast iron.
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Refractories and Operation of RH and RH-OB Process
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mohamed farouk portfolio
This portfolio document introduces Mohamed Farouk Bayomi Elhabshy and summarizes his qualifications and experience. He has over 8 years of experience in QA/QC and welding inspection in the petrochemical, oil, and gas industries. He holds certifications as a Certified Welding Inspector from AWS and Level II NDT inspector certifications. The portfolio provides details of his educational background, work history, projects, training, and certificates to demonstrate his relevant skills and qualifications for welding inspection and QA/QC roles.
Structural steel division, Jindal Steel
The document summarizes the facilities, capabilities, and products of JSPL Structural Steel Division. It has two major plants located in Raigarh and Angul, India with a total annual capacity of 180,000 metric tons. The plants are equipped with state-of-the-art manufacturing facilities for plate processing, beam welding, drilling, shot blasting, painting, and quality inspection. JSPL Structural Steel Division provides a wide range of structural steel products including heavy industrial structures, light buildings, pre-engineered buildings, and light gauge structures. It services major customers in sectors like power, mining, and construction.
Galvanized Steel Manufacturing Process
1. The document describes the manufacturing process for galvanized steel frames used in power transmission towers. It involves planning and design, obtaining raw materials, fabrication which includes cutting, marking, drilling and other machining, and a final galvanization process to prevent corrosion.
2. Key steps in the fabrication process are cutting the steel angles to size, marking them according to drawings, drilling holes using precision machines, and bending frames into shape. Coolants are used to prevent overheating during machining.
3. The galvanization process provides corrosion protection by coating the fabricated steel frames with zinc via hot-dipping. Zinc corrodes more slowly than steel, protecting the frames for decades in harsh environments.
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The document discusses the process of shop fabrication of structural steel. It describes the key stages as receiving and inspecting raw materials, preparation such as cutting and drilling, production through welding, surface preparation and protection. Quality control is conducted throughout, including material inspections, dimension checks, identification tests and non-destructive tests. Common welding defects are also outlined along with factors that affect weld quality. Non-destructive tests like visual inspection, radiography, ultrasonic and magnetic testing are used to identify any defects before erection.
GS
Metcraft Engineering manufactures and supplies hot dipped galvanized steel scaffolding systems, including cup lock, ring lock, and frame systems. The scaffolding is used in construction, industrial processes, and other industries. Metcraft also produces other hot dipped galvanized steel structures. It has fabrication and galvanizing facilities near Bangalore with modern machinery and a capacity of 1000 tons per month of fabrication and 1400 tons per month of galvanizing. Metcraft provides customized scaffolding solutions for various projects.
Gb2013 wim brandsema_euromáquina
This document summarizes information about Indufinish, a manufacturer of surface treatment equipment. It describes Indufinish's fluxcleaning technology, which removes iron from galvanizing flux to improve quality. Case studies show that fluxcleaning lowers iron levels and pH, reducing dross, ashes and roughness. Customers of fluxcleaning systems achieve savings through less flux waste disposal and labor. Indufinish promotes their fluxcleaning units as compact, automated, easy to maintain and providing a quick return on investment for galvanizers.
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The document discusses different types of metal coated steel products, including galvanized steel, galvalume, galvannealed, and galfan. It explains that the coatings protect the steel surface from corrosion and oxidation. Each product has different applications depending on its environment. The document provides details on the composition, coating designations, applications, and corrosion resistance of the four main coated steel products. It also discusses trademarks, grade designations, and additional information about standards and pre-painted varieties.
Alloying Metals. Leaving Cert. Engineering.
A PowerPoint presentation covering aspects of the Leaving Cert. Higher level Engineering theory course on metal alloying.
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Fabrication is the process of assembling steel structures after production in mills. It involves receiving raw materials like steel sections, plates, and fasteners then preparing them through cutting, drilling holes, and rolling plates. The main fabrication procedures are production using cold forming, welding together components after edge preparation, and applying surface protection through methods like blasting and painting. Non-destructive testing techniques help ensure quality by identifying any defects in welds. Quality control focuses on maintaining standards while quality assurance establishes how well quality will be achieved.
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The document discusses various defects that can occur in metal forming processes. It describes the different types of bulk metal forming processes like rolling, forging, extrusion, and drawing. It also covers sheet metalworking processes like bending, drawing, and shearing. The document discusses factors that influence metal forming like material behavior, temperature, strain rate, friction, and lubrication. It explains defects like springback, wrinkles, and provides methods to minimize them.
Process And Layout Strategies
The document outlines key concepts in operations management related to process and layout strategies. It discusses four main process strategies - process focus, repetitive focus, product focus, and mass customization. It also compares the characteristics of different layout types, including office, retail, warehouse, project-oriented, process-oriented, work cell, and product-oriented layouts. The main objectives are to describe different production processes, layout types, and how to analyze and improve processes.
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This document provides information about metals, including ferrous and non-ferrous metals. It discusses various metal types and their properties, uses, and melting points. Key metals mentioned include steel, cast iron, high carbon steel, high speed steel, stainless steel, aluminum, copper, zinc, tin, lead, silver, gold, magnesium, brass, bronze and solder. The document also covers metal shapes and metals used in everyday objects like bicycles.
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This document provides an overview of sheet metal forming processes. It discusses both cutting (shearing) operations like punching, blanking, and notching as well as forming operations like bending, drawing, squeezing, and hydroforming. The document describes various bending operations including V-bending, roll bending, and tube bending. It also discusses processes for forming parts like deep drawing, ironing, redrawing, and the multi-step metal forming process used to produce aluminum beverage cans.
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(诚招代理)办理国外高校毕业证成绩单文凭学位证,真实使馆公证（留学回国人员证明）真实留信网认证国外学历学位认证雅思代考国外学校代申请名校保录开请假条改GPA改成绩ID卡
1.高仿业务:【本科硕士】毕业证,成绩单（GPA修改）,学历认证（教育部认证）,大学Offer,,ID,留信认证,使馆认证,雅思,语言证书等高仿类证书；
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办理加利福尼亚艺术学院加利福尼亚艺术学院毕业证文凭证书流程：
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Blood Finder is an emergency time app where a user can search for the blood banks as
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opportunity for the user of this application to become a registered donor for this user have
to enroll for the donor request from the application itself. If the admin wish to make user
a registered donor, with some of the formalities with the organization it can be done.
Specialization of this application is that the user will not have to register on sign-in for
searching the blood banks and blood donors it can be just done by installing the
application to the mobile.
The purpose of making this application is to save the user’s time for searching blood of
needed blood group during the time of the emergency.
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SQLite database. This application will provide most of basic functionality required for an
emergency time application. All the details of Blood banks and Blood donors are stored
in the database i.e. SQLite.
This application allowed the user to get all the information regarding blood banks and
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原版一模一样【微信：741003700 】【(爱大毕业证书)爱荷华大学毕业证成绩单】【微信：741003700 】学位证，留信认证（真实可查，永久存档）原件一模一样纸张工艺/offer、雅思、外壳等材料/诚信可靠,可直接看成品样本，帮您解决无法毕业带来的各种难题！外壳，原版制作，诚信可靠，可直接看成品样本。行业标杆！精益求精，诚心合作，真诚制作！多年品质 ,按需精细制作，24小时接单,全套进口原装设备。十五年致力于帮助留学生解决难题，包您满意。
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毕业生姓名：这是最重要的信息之一，标志着该证书是由特定人员获得的。
颁发日期：这是毕业正式生效的时间，也代表着毕业生学业的结束。
其他信息：根据不同的专业和学位，可能会有一些特定的信息或章节。
办理(爱大毕业证书)爱荷华大学毕业证【微信：741003700 】价值很高，需要妥善保管。一般来说，应放置在安全、干燥、防潮的地方，避免长时间暴露在阳光下。如需使用，最好使用复印件而不是原件，以免丢失。
综上所述，办理(爱大毕业证书)爱荷华大学毕业证【微信：741003700 】是证明身份和学历的高价值文件。外观简单庄重，格式统一，包括重要的个人信息和发布日期。对持有人来说，妥善保管是非常重要的。
Determination of Equivalent Circuit parameters and performance characteristic...
Includes the testing of induction motor to draw the circle diagram of induction motor with step wise procedure and calculation for the same. Also explains the working and application of Induction generator
Tools & Techniques for Commissioning and Maintaining PV Systems W-Animations ...
Join us for this solutions-based webinar on the tools and techniques for commissioning and maintaining PV Systems. In this session, we'll review the process of building and maintaining a solar array, starting with installation and commissioning, then reviewing operations and maintenance of the system. This course will review insulation resistance testing, I-V curve testing, earth-bond continuity, ground resistance testing, performance tests, visual inspections, ground and arc fault testing procedures, and power quality analysis.
Fluke Solar Application Specialist Will White is presenting on this engaging topic:
Will has worked in the renewable energy industry since 2005, first as an installer for a small east coast solar integrator before adding sales, design, and project management to his skillset. In 2022, Will joined Fluke as a solar application specialist, where he supports their renewable energy testing equipment like IV-curve tracers, electrical meters, and thermal imaging cameras. Experienced in wind power, solar thermal, energy storage, and all scales of PV, Will has primarily focused on residential and small commercial systems. He is passionate about implementing high-quality, code-compliant installation techniques.
Impartiality as per ISO /IEC 17025:2017 Standard
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一比一原版(USF毕业证)旧金山大学毕业证如何办理
原件一模一样【微信：95270640】【旧金山大学毕业证USF学位证成绩单】【微信：95270640】（留信学历认证永久存档查询）采用学校原版纸张、特殊工艺完全按照原版一比一制作（包括：隐形水印，阴影底纹，钢印LOGO烫金烫银，LOGO烫金烫银复合重叠，文字图案浮雕，激光镭射，紫外荧光，温感，复印防伪）行业标杆！精益求精，诚心合作，真诚制作！多年品质 ,按需精细制作，24小时接单,全套进口原装设备，十五年致力于帮助留学生解决难题，业务范围有加拿大、英国、澳洲、韩国、美国、新加坡，新西兰等学历材料，包您满意。
【业务选择办理准则】
一、工作未确定，回国需先给父母、亲戚朋友看下文凭的情况，办理一份就读学校的毕业证【微信：95270640】文凭即可
二、回国进私企、外企、自己做生意的情况，这些单位是不查询毕业证真伪的，而且国内没有渠道去查询国外文凭的真假，也不需要提供真实教育部认证。鉴于此，办理一份毕业证【微信：95270640】即可
三、进国企，银行，事业单位，考公务员等等，这些单位是必需要提供真实教育部认证的，办理教育部认证所需资料众多且烦琐，所有材料您都必须提供原件，我们凭借丰富的经验，快捷的绿色通道帮您快速整合材料，让您少走弯路。
留信网认证的作用:
1:该专业认证可证明留学生真实身份【微信：95270640】
2:同时对留学生所学专业登记给予评定
3:国家专业人才认证中心颁发入库证书
4:这个认证书并且可以归档倒地方
5:凡事获得留信网入网的信息将会逐步更新到个人身份内，将在公安局网内查询个人身份证信息后，同步读取人才网入库信息
6:个人职称评审加20分
7:个人信誉贷款加10分
8:在国家人才网主办的国家网络招聘大会中纳入资料，供国家高端企业选择人才
→ 【关于价格问题（保证一手价格）
我们所定的价格是非常合理的，而且我们现在做得单子大多数都是代理和回头客户介绍的所以一般现在有新的单子 我给客户的都是第一手的代理价格，因为我想坦诚对待大家 不想跟大家在价格方面浪费时间
对于老客户或者被老客户介绍过来的朋友，我们都会适当给一些优惠。
选择实体注册公司办理，更放心，更安全！我们的承诺：可来公司面谈，可签订合同，会陪同客户一起到教育部认证窗口递交认证材料，客户在教育部官方认证查询网站查询到认证通过结果后付款，不成功不收费！
办理旧金山大学毕业证毕业证学位证USF学位证【微信：95270640 】外观非常精致，由特殊纸质材料制成，上面印有校徽、校名、毕业生姓名、专业等信息。
办理旧金山大学毕业证USF学位证毕业证学位证【微信：95270640 】格式相对统一，各专业都有相应的模板。通常包括以下部分：
校徽：象征着学校的荣誉和传承。
校名:学校英文全称
授予学位：本部分将注明获得的具体学位名称。
毕业生姓名：这是最重要的信息之一，标志着该证书是由特定人员获得的。
颁发日期：这是毕业正式生效的时间，也代表着毕业生学业的结束。
其他信息：根据不同的专业和学位，可能会有一些特定的信息或章节。
办理旧金山大学毕业证毕业证学位证USF学位证【微信：95270640 】价值很高，需要妥善保管。一般来说，应放置在安全、干燥、防潮的地方，避免长时间暴露在阳光下。如需使用，最好使用复印件而不是原件，以免丢失。
综上所述，办理旧金山大学毕业证毕业证学位证USF学位证【微信：95270640 】是证明身份和学历的高价值文件。外观简单庄重，格式统一，包括重要的个人信息和发布日期。对持有人来说，妥善保管是非常重要的。
DEEP LEARNING FOR SMART GRID INTRUSION DETECTION: A HYBRID CNN-LSTM-BASED MODEL
As digital technology becomes more deeply embedded in power systems, protecting the communication
networks of Smart Grids (SG) has emerged as a critical concern. Distributed Network Protocol 3 (DNP3)
represents a multi-tiered application layer protocol extensively utilized in Supervisory Control and Data
Acquisition (SCADA)-based smart grids to facilitate real-time data gathering and control functionalities.
Robust Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS) are necessary for early threat detection and mitigation because
of the interconnection of these networks, which makes them vulnerable to a variety of cyberattacks. To
solve this issue, this paper develops a hybrid Deep Learning (DL) model specifically designed for intrusion
detection in smart grids. The proposed approach is a combination of the Convolutional Neural Network
(CNN) and the Long-Short-Term Memory algorithms (LSTM). We employed a recent intrusion detection
dataset (DNP3), which focuses on unauthorized commands and Denial of Service (DoS) cyberattacks, to
train and test our model. The results of our experiments show that our CNN-LSTM method is much better
at finding smart grid intrusions than other deep learning algorithms used for classification. In addition,
our proposed approach improves accuracy, precision, recall, and F1 score, achieving a high detection
accuracy rate of 99.50%.
一比一原版(uoft毕业证书)加拿大多伦多大学毕业证如何办理
原版一模一样【微信：741003700 】【(uoft毕业证书)加拿大多伦多大学毕业证成绩单】【微信：741003700 】学位证，留信认证（真实可查，永久存档）原件一模一样纸张工艺/offer、雅思、外壳等材料/诚信可靠,可直接看成品样本，帮您解决无法毕业带来的各种难题！外壳，原版制作，诚信可靠，可直接看成品样本。行业标杆！精益求精，诚心合作，真诚制作！多年品质 ,按需精细制作，24小时接单,全套进口原装设备。十五年致力于帮助留学生解决难题，包您满意。
本公司拥有海外各大学样板无数，能完美还原。
1:1完美还原海外各大学毕业材料上的工艺：水印，阴影底纹，钢印LOGO烫金烫银，LOGO烫金烫银复合重叠。文字图案浮雕、激光镭射、紫外荧光、温感、复印防伪等防伪工艺。材料咨询办理、认证咨询办理请加学历顾问Q/微741003700
【主营项目】
一.毕业证【q微741003700】成绩单、使馆认证、教育部认证、雅思托福成绩单、学生卡等！
二.真实使馆公证(即留学回国人员证明,不成功不收费)
三.真实教育部学历学位认证（教育部存档！教育部留服网站永久可查）
四.办理各国各大学文凭(一对一专业服务,可全程监控跟踪进度)
如果您处于以下几种情况：
◇在校期间，因各种原因未能顺利毕业……拿不到官方毕业证【q/微741003700】
◇面对父母的压力，希望尽快拿到；
◇不清楚认证流程以及材料该如何准备；
◇回国时间很长，忘记办理；
◇回国马上就要找工作，办给用人单位看；
◇企事业单位必须要求办理的
◇需要报考公务员、购买免税车、落转户口
◇申请留学生创业基金
留信网认证的作用:
1:该专业认证可证明留学生真实身份
2:同时对留学生所学专业登记给予评定
3:国家专业人才认证中心颁发入库证书
4:这个认证书并且可以归档倒地方
5:凡事获得留信网入网的信息将会逐步更新到个人身份内，将在公安局网内查询个人身份证信息后，同步读取人才网入库信息
6:个人职称评审加20分
7:个人信誉贷款加10分
8:在国家人才网主办的国家网络招聘大会中纳入资料，供国家高端企业选择人才
办理(uoft毕业证书)加拿大多伦多大学毕业证【微信：741003700 】外观非常简单，由纸质材料制成，上面印有校徽、校名、毕业生姓名、专业等信息。
办理(uoft毕业证书)加拿大多伦多大学毕业证【微信：741003700 】格式相对统一，各专业都有相应的模板。通常包括以下部分：
校徽：象征着学校的荣誉和传承。
校名:学校英文全称
授予学位：本部分将注明获得的具体学位名称。
毕业生姓名：这是最重要的信息之一，标志着该证书是由特定人员获得的。
颁发日期：这是毕业正式生效的时间，也代表着毕业生学业的结束。
其他信息：根据不同的专业和学位，可能会有一些特定的信息或章节。
办理(uoft毕业证书)加拿大多伦多大学毕业证【微信：741003700 】价值很高，需要妥善保管。一般来说，应放置在安全、干燥、防潮的地方，避免长时间暴露在阳光下。如需使用，最好使用复印件而不是原件，以免丢失。
综上所述，办理(uoft毕业证书)加拿大多伦多大学毕业证【微信：741003700 】是证明身份和学历的高价值文件。外观简单庄重，格式统一，包括重要的个人信息和发布日期。对持有人来说，妥善保管是非常重要的。
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Galvanized Steel Manufacturing
- 1. Introduction of Galvanized Steel Corrosion and repair of corrosion damage are multi-billion dollar problems. Estimates show metallic corrosion costs the United States approximately $297 billion annually, or about 3% of the national GDP. Although corrosion is a natural phenomenon, and can never be completely eliminated, utilizing adequate corrosion protection systems in harsh environments can drastically reduce the costs.
- 2. Manufacturing Process • Planning and Design • Raw Material • Fabrication • Hot Dip Galvanization • Quality and Testing • Bundling and Loading
- 3. Planning and Design Planning of project was started when basic task of the project was received. For setting up about the main idea of project, several meetings were arranged among the team members. The Company has in-house design centres with a strong team of over 100 design experts in India and Americas who continuously develop innovative, construction friendly and cost- effective designs. It is equipped with the latest software like PLS Tower, PLS Pole, PLS CADD, AUTOCAD, MICROSTATION, BOCAD and Google Earth.
- 4. Raw Material The raw material used for manufacturing of self-supported power transmission towers are steel angle bars. It can be in different sizes and different profile types i.e. L, V, T-shape and flat angle bars iron net and other sheet metal.
- 5. Fabrication The raw material is issued from the storage the next and first operation of manufacturing are straightening and cutting of angle bars that are done with the presses. Before cutting the angle bars it needed to measure and have to do some marking according to required sizes. There are three presses in the factory which are used to cut different angle bars in different shapes and sizes and then material is sent to machine shop.
- 6. Flow Chart of Fabrication Process Marking & Measurement Straightening Cutting Punching Bending Stamping Notching • Marking and Measurement • Straightening • Cutting • Punching • Bending • Stamping • Notching Raw Material To galvanization process
- 7. CNC Punching Machine Hot Treatment Bending and Notching Machine Cutting Machine
- 8. Galvanization Process The process of applying a protective zinc coating on iron or steel by passing the metal through a molten bath of zinc to prevent it from rusting. The steel is dipped into the molten zinc bath and held there until the temperature of the steel equilibrates with that of the bath. Temperature of molten bath is around 860°F(460°C). Zn+O₂=ZnO ZnO+CO₂=ZnCO₃
- 9. Hot Dip Galvanization Process • Degreasing- The product is dipped into hot alkali solution to remove contaminants such as dirt, grease, paint markings and oil. • Rinsing- Alkali is removed by washing lightly with water. • Pickling- The product is dipped into a dilute solution of HCL to remove rust. • Rinsing- HCL is removed by washing with water. • Fluxing- Zinc ammonium chloride is applied to remove oxides and further formation of oxides on the surface of steel and promotes bonding of zinc to steel.
- 10. • Zink Bath-In this tank steel frames are diping in the hot melt Zink tank around 3-4 minutes according to the frame thickness. • Rising Tank- This tank consist water. The material is dipped into it for cooking, cleaning after Zn coating.
- 12. Quality & Testing The inspection of hot-dip galvanized steel is simple and fast. The two properties of the coating closely scrutinized are coating appearance and coating thickness. A variety of simple physical and laboratory tests may be performed to determine thickness, uniformity, adherence, and appearance.
- 13. Tower Erection The last operation after manufacturing is erection of simply supported towers. When the towers are transported to site, the foundation of tower is ready before the tower structure is unloaded. The foundation of the part is constructed by company's civil engineers who make the foundation ready two weeks before the erection of tower.
- 14. Thank You