Unit 4 methods of data collection

1. Methods of data collection

2. • An ideal data collection procedure should be clear, unbiased, reliable
and valid.
• It must produce evidence to answer research question or test
hypothesis.
• Measurement of variables of interest is done through data collection
method.

3. Primary Vs Secondary data collection method
Primary Data Collection Method
• It involves data collected directly from the subjects by the researcher
or trained data collector.
• Data collected are specifically for the purpose of research
• e.g. Surveys, Interview, Observations Bio-Physiologic Measurement.

4. Primary Data Collection Method
Advantages
• Tailored according to research needs
• The researcher can determine exactly what data will be collected and can
identify the specific tools that will be used.
• Defined and consistent protocol
• Completeness of data is ensured.
Disadvantages
• Time consuming
• Rely on patient recall and communication abilities
• Bias may occur due to various factors.
• Need to check reliability of raters.

5. Secondary Data Collection Method
• It involves of use of the data that were collected for various purposes other
than current research.
• Eg., diaries, nurses notes, care plans, Patient medication record, statistical
abstracts, census reports neither published or unpublished data
Advantages
• It is easier and quicker.
• Absence of researcher’s biases.
• Economical and time saving
• Examine the trends over time
• Participant’s co-operation may not be necessary & it eliminates the biases
related to participant awareness.

6. Disadvantages
• Accuracy, completeness and reliability depend upon original
individual collecting the data.
• It may not be ideally suitable for answering current research question.
• Missed data and inaccuracy are common.

7. Data collection methods
Interview - Unstructured
• 1. Self reports - Semi structured
- Structured questionnaire
SAQ
• 2. Bio-physiologic measurements.
• 3. Observational method.
• 4. Psychometric measurements.
• 5. Other - projective technique, Q - sorts, vignette.

8. Tools for data collection
1. Self report: Questionnaire, attitude scale, semantic differential scale,
visual analog scale.
2. Observation : Rating scale, check list, anecdotal record, Process
recording video tapes etc.,
3. Bio physiological : In-vitro & In-vivo

9. Self - Reports
• It is a method in which information is gathered by questioning people.
• By questioning, good deal of information can be gathered.
• Self Reports
- Self administered questionnaire (SAQ) (or) paper and pencil test
- Interview methods.

10. Interview
• 1. An interview involves verbal communication between the researcher
and the subject during which information is provided to the researcher.
Interview is a conversation carried art with the definite purpose of
obtaining certain information by means of spoken word.
• 2. It is defined as collecting data which individual presentation of oral -
verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral - verbal response.
• 3. Most common method in qualitative and descriptive studies.
• 4. Interview refers an oral questionnaire.
• 5. Investigator collect data directly from the participants by having face to
face contact, to obtain factual data about opinion, attitude, belief, etc.,

11. Types of Interview
• 1. Unstructured interview (non directive or non standardized)
• 2. Semi structured interview (or) focused interview
• 3. Completely structured interview

12. Unstructured Interview
• It is characterized by a flexibility of approach to questioning. It will not
follow a system of predetermined questions and standardization
techniques of recording information.
• Interviewer freely asks the questions according to his own wish when
required or omit the certain questions.
• Subjects are encouraged to talk freely and only very few questions asked to
direct the trend of the interview.
• Researcher is having greater freedom to record or omit the responses.
• It is conversational in nature and conducted in naturalistic setting.
• It may be also called as ‘Grand Tour’ technique.

13. Advantages
• 1. Information obtained in such a casual manner enhances reliability
and credibility of date.
• 2. Explorative and qualitative studies
• 3. Less prone to interviewer biases.
• 4. “Probs” questions can be assuring additional information to clarify.

14. Disadvantages
• 1. Interviewer requires great deal of knowledge and skill in order to
analyse the data.
• 2. Information cannot be compared.
• 3. Analysis will be difficult.
• 4. Data interpretation based on researcher’s perception and
subjective feelings.
• 5. Time wasting.

15. Semi - Structural Interview (Focused
interview)
• 1. In order to ensure the given topics is covered in interview,
researcher uses a list of arrays or topics or questions, it is also to
guide the interview (conversation) in right direction.
• 2. A set of questions or topics otherwise called as ‘topic guide’
• 3. Participants are assured to talk freely about the topic mention in
topic guide.
• 4. Researcher will ask questions to different ways to different
participants.
• 5. It includes both closed ended questions and open ended questions.

16. Advantages
• 1. It avoids unnecessary waste of time, in purpose less discussion.
• 2. The needed data can be collected as topic guide helps to present
omissions and commissions.
• 3. Most widely used methods.
Disadvantages
• 1. Interviewer should have a skill in ‘probs’ when additional information
required.
• 2. Data cannot be compared.
• 3. Analysis will be difficult.

17. Focused Group Interview
• In a focused group interview, a group of four or more people is assembled
for a discussion.
• The interviewer (moderator) guides the discussion according to a written
set of questions or topics to be covered.
Advantages
• 1. It is efficient. Researches obtain the view forms of many individual in a
short time.
• 2. It helps for richer and deeper opinion of expression.
Disadvantages
• 1. Some of the people will be having discomfort in expressing their views.
• 2. Group culture inhibits individual opinion

18. Structured Interview
• It involves asking the same questions, in the same order, and in same
manner of all respondents in a study.
• Interviewer uses structured interview schedule.
• It commonly have fixed type, and closed ended questions.
• It also known as standardized interview.
• Interviewers are not permitted to change even specific wording also.
• It increases the reliability and credibility of data.

19. Merits
• 1. Data from one interview to the next one are easily comparable.
• 2. Recording, coding and analysis of data is easy.
• 3. Avoids irrelevant purposeless conversation.
Demerits
• 1. In-depth information may not be possible.
• 2. Exploration of data is limited.
• 3. It may not cover all the possible responses or respondent views.

20. Steps Of Interview - (Structured) Preparatory
Phase
• 1. Preparation of structured questionnaire (interview schedule)
(Interview schedule - data obtained in interview are usually recorded
on an instrument referred Interview schedule)
• 2. Training of the interviewer regarding attitude towards participant,
skills in probing, administering items according to order, non verbal
communication, body language etc
• 3. Decide the Setting for interview -Natural and Comfortable
Environment
• 4. Preparation of Interviewer guide.
• 5. Preparing additional instruments.

21. Initial Phase
• Establish rapport and assure them data will be kept confidential
• Indicate how long interview will be taken
• Obtain informed consent and explain their rights and privileges.

22. Interview phase
• 1. Ask only one question at a time. Use show card for many responses for
closed questions.
• 2. Repeat question if necessary.
• 3. Avoid unnecessary description of question.
• 4. Listen carefully to the subjects answer.
• 5. Allow the subject sufficient time to answer questions.
• 6. Do not show any signs / expressions of surprise, shock or approve.
• 7. Maintain neutral attitude.
• 8. Use probes when necessary
• 9. Do not summarize or paraphrase interview.

23. Recording Phase
• 1. Record responses as they take place.
• 2. Coding sheet is must preferred for structured questionnaire.
• 3. If any questions not answered, again repeat the question to the
respondent.
• 4. Verify the schedule for completeness.

24. Closing / Termination Phase
• After interview has concluded, participants should be asked if they
have any questions.
• Explanations can be given at this time

25. Advantages
• 1. Responses can be obtained from a wide range of subjects.
• 2. Response rate is high in face to face interview.
• 3. Clarify - subjects can be given clarification regarding ambiguous
and confusing questions.
• 4. It enhances reliable quality data, hence it allows probing in semi
structured interview and in- depth response can be obtained.
• 5. It will minimize missing information and response related bias such
as yea - Sayers, I don’t know.
• 6. Questions can be asked according to the order specifically
mentioned or planned, i.e., order of questions protected.

26. • 7. It provides highest control over the samples. Hence, subjects are
interviewed face to face. In other method, subject may pass the
questionnaire to other individual to answer.
• 8. It helps to collect supplementary data if required.
• 9. Greater flexibility in keep the subjects at ease
• 10. Data are not influenced by others and it minimizing the risk of
contamination among respondents.
• 11. It is a good method for illiterate, poor expression and bad
handwriting subjects.

27. Disadvantages
• 1. Training programme is needed for interviewers.
• 2. It is time consuming and expensive.
• 3. It will not ensure anonymity, in case of sensitive issues, data
obtained may be biased, and hence subjects may provide socially
acceptable answer. (Social desirability response)
• 4. High degree of interviewer’s biases.
• 5. Rosenthal effect - Interviewer may influence subjects. (greater
expectation- greater performance)

28. QUESTIONNAIRE
• A questionnaire is a structured instrument consists of series of
questions prepared by researcher that a respondent is asked to
complete.
• SAQ also known as ‘survey’ .The instrument is called a questionnaire
(SAQ) when respondents complete the instrument themselves,
usually in a paper and pencil format.
• Questionnaire - measure knowledge, attitude etc.
• Questionnaire are commonly used data collection tool

29. Methods of Questionnaire Administration:
• 1. Direct Administration-It is completely different from interview, in
which interviewer will read the items & responses, respondent
merely to answer orally.
But in-direct method, researcher will distribute the
questionnaire and respondent answer items by writing or checking
against correct response.
• 2. Post or e-mail including all electronic means.
This method is called as Mailed questionnaire

30. Structure - Open ended Vs Closed ended
Open ended
• It requires written responses from the subjects and allow respondent
to answer in their own words.
• Easy to construct
• Difficult to analyze.
• Commonly used in qualitative research.
• Time consuming
• They provide insightful and natural response
• Flexible and applicable to wide range of participants.

31. Closed ended
• It requiring only selecting the response from given alternatives (pre-
designated, developed by researcher)
• Difficult to construct
• Easy to analyse and compare
• Commonly used in quantitive studies.
• Time- saving
• Fixed and artificial
• Relevant data
• More objective

32. Types of questions
• 1. Open ended
• 2. Closed ended
• 3. Demographic
• 4. Contingency questions/ skip questions - Items that is relevant for
some respondents and not for others. E.g., what about hospital
experience? (who never hospitalized can not answer). e.g., Yes / No, if
yes - poor good very good

33. • 5. Filler questions - are items in which the researcher has no direct
interest but are included on a questionnaire to reduce the emphasis
on the specific purpose of other questions to make the subjects to
answer more honestly.
• If their focus only on the purpose of the study, they may hesitate to
answer or provide more approved answer

34. Specific Types Of Closed Type Questions
(Selection type items)
1. Multiple Choice Questions
• It is a type of question offer two or more responses alternatives.
• It commonly contains 3 to 7 alternatives.
• A multiple choice item consists of two parts:
• first is stem, which can be a question or incomplete statement, the
second part consists of several options (distractors and correct
response) from which to select a correct answer. (Distractors also
known as decays or foils)

35. Forms and Types of MCQ
1. The correct answer form
• Three or more responses are given but only one of them is correct.
2. The best answer form
• There one or more responses are correct but one of them is the best answer.
The sub- jects are requested to select best one.
3. The multiple response form
• Here two or more responses are correct and the subject is request to identify
the all correct responses.
4. The negative form
• The stem has a negative approach. In response one may be correct response.

36. Principles and Rules of Constructing MCQ
1. The response items should be mutually exclusive and collectively
exhaustive.
Mutually exclusive means the responses should be different from one
another (overlap should not be there).
Collective exhaustive - it should cover all possible answers or options.
2. There should be underlying rationale for ordering alternatives.
3. Questions (stem) should be worded clearly.
4. It should be according to the researcher’s understanding ability.
5. Try to state the questions affirmative rather than negative, especially avoid
double negatives. State the stem positive rather than negative manner, if it is
written in negative manner, under- line or bold the negative words.

37. 6. Avoid long sentences or phrases or technical terms
7. Avoid double-barreled questions that contain two distinct ideas or
concepts. Eg., The mentally ill are incapable to look after themselves
and they should be kept in prison.
8. Questions on complex or specialized issues can be worded in such a
way that a respondent will be comfortable and provide natural
responses. E.g., Have you heard about various contraceptive practices?
9. Avoid leading questions that suggest a particular kind of answer. E.g.,
Do you agree that nurses are very important for health care?

38. 11. Avoid using ‘all the above’, ‘none of the above’ as an opinion.
Participants may guess the answer with partial knowledge.
12. Do not keep the items that every one will answer or agree or every
one will not answer.
13. All items and responses should be arranged in logical
sequence(alphabetic or numerical order), general to specific, and least
sensitive to more sensitive,
14. Researcher must ensure answer to one question will not influence
other question.
15. Include enough information in the stem to answer question.

39. 16. Keep all options grammatically consistent with the stem to avoid
clues to the correct option.
17. Keep all the options the same length or have two short responses
and two long responses.
18. Make all options reasonable and homogenous.
19. It is need not necessary that all items should have same number of
options.
20. Use “Best answer form MCQ” when majority of the experts agree.

40. 2.Cafeteria Question
• It is a special type of MCQ that asks the respondents to select best
response that most closely corresponds to their view. Usually it will
be having all positive statements.
3.Dichotonomus Questions
• It requires respondents to make choice between two response
alternatives such as yes / no, male / female.
4.Rank order questions:
• It requires respondents to rank the items along the continuum from
most important to least important by assigning rank to the items.

41. Advantages of Questionnaire
• 1. Questionnaires are applicable to wider and large number of
samples.
• 2. Anonymity will be maintained.
• 3. No field staff required to supervise the data collection procedure.
• 4. It is free from interviewer related biases.
• 5. Best method for collecting information regarding sensitive and
controversial issues
• 6. The participants will response the items naturally and exhibits
candour(honest) behaviour.

42. Disadvantages of Questionnaire:
• 1. This method is not applicable to all individuals especially illiterates, visually
challenged, etc.,
• 2. It has poor sample control. It may be filled by some person other than the
respondent.
• 3. Response rate is low, Follow up reminder required to achieve higher response
rate.
• 4. Respondent may not follow the order of questions.
• 5. High chances for missing information.
• 6. Probing and clarification of items are not possible.
• 7. Risk of contamination among the respondents is quiet high when mailed
questionnaire is adopted.
• 8. Response related biases are quiet high.

43. ATTITUDE SCALES
• Attitude denotes the inner feeling or belief of a person towards a
particular phenomenon.

44. Methods of assessing attitude
• 1. Direct Method: It is the best way to assess the attitude of the
individual.
• It involves assessing the behaviour in natural setting and real life
situation.
• This method is commonly applied in qualitative research.

45. 2. Indirect Method: It is the method commonly adopted in research to
assess attitude.
• It involves asking the individual directly how he feels about a subject
through the use of questionnaire or interview.
• In this method, he is also asked to indicate his agreement or
disagreement with a series of statements about a controversial
subject.

46. Types of attitude scales
• A scale is an instrument which measures subjective variables. Each of
these important scale types provides the means to gather subjective
data objectively.
• 1. Thurstone scale.
• 2. Likert scale.
• 3. Guttman’s scale.
• 4. Semantic Differential Scale and Multi Dimensional Scales.

47. Likert Scales
• The most widely used scaling technique is the Likert scale, named
after the psychologist Rensis Likert.
• A Likert scale consists of several declarative items that express a
viewpoint on a topic.
• Respondents are asked to indicate the degree to which they agree or
disagree with the opinion expressed by the statement.
• Good Likert scales usually include 10 or more statements

48. OBSERVATION
Observation involves the systematic selection, observation, and
recording of behaviours, events, and settings relevant to a problem
under investigation.

49. Phenomenon Amenable To Observation
• Characteristics and conditions of the individuals such as physical
appearance, physiological symptoms, sleep wake cycle etc.,
• Activities of the individual such as health status, physical and
emotional functioning, eating habits etc.,
• Skill attainment and performance which manifested behaviourally,
such as inserting urinary catheter, job performance, etc.,
• Verbal Communication and Non-Verbal Communication
• Environmental Characteristics
• Events and Conditions occur in the setting.

50. Types of Observation
• Based on the time frame and controls-
• Structured and Unstructured Observation
• Based on observer role -
• Participant and Non-Participant Observation

51. Structured Observation
• It aims to provide measurable and quantifiable data that are valid and
reliable.
Unstructured Observation
• It involves describing events or behaviour as they occur with no
preconceived ideas of what will be seen

52. Participant Observation
• 1. Observer becomes more or less a member of group which is under
observation.
• 2. The observer plays a dual role that is as observer and also as
participant.
• 3. He may assume the role of an attentive listener or a full fledged
participant.
• 4. It is flexible, reliable and discloses the hidden, minute and delicate
facts.

53. Advantages of Participant Observation
• 1. The investigator does not rely totally on intuition to understand
the perspective of his subjects. He sees the world at least for
sometime, in the same way as other members of the group see it.
• 2. It has a built-in validity test
Disadvantages of Participant Observation
• 1. It is time consuming.
• 2. Sometimes the observer’s presence modifies the behaviour of the
subjects to be observed.

54. Non-Participant Observation
• 1. The observer takes a position so that his presence does not disturb
the activities of the group.
• 2. It is very helpful in recording and studying the behaviour of the
members of the group in detail.
• 3. Non-participant observation is used in the case of abnormal
individuals, infants and children.
• 4. Observer merely observes the phenomenon or views the situation
with out interacting with the participants.

55. OBSERVER RELATED ERRORS
• Error of standards - different raters would be more likely to rate the
same items differently, thereby reducing reliability of ratings between
raters.
• Halo error -It refers to the tendency of the observer to be influenced
by one characteristic in judging other.
This may be done subconsciously and may be in a negative or
positive direction. Therefore, halo error can affect scores negatively or
positively.

56. • Logic error - results when a rater rates one characteristic of a performer
when another characteristic is supposed to be the focus of the rating. This
occurs when the rater is not fully aware of the independence of two
performance characteristics.
• Central tendency error - Raters will often avoid rating performers on the
extreme anchors of rating scales and tend to group ratings more in the
middle of the scale.

57. • Error of Leniency - Rater assign high scoring to each and every
respondent irrespective of their performance.
• Reactive measurement effect- Presence of the observer lead to
behaviour distortion among the participant called as reactive
measurement effect. (Hawthorne effect)

58. Tools Used in Structured Observation
• 1. Rating Scale
• 2. Check list

59. CHECK LIST
• A check list is a simple instrument consisting prepared list of expected
items of performance or attributes, which are checked by a
researcher for their presence or absence.

60. Construction of Good Checklists
• The list of items in the checklist may be continuous or divided into
groups of related items.
• All items should be arranged in logical order.
• Express each item in clear, simple language, observable and
measurable concrete concepts. Each item should assess or describe
only one behavior or criteria.
• Items should be discriminative in quality i.e to secure the required
information and details.
• An intensive survey of the literature is made to determine the type of
checklist to be used in a particular research.

61. • Avoid negative statements whenever possible.
• Ensure that each item has clear responses: yes or no.
• Reviews the items independently.
• Checklist must have the quality of completeness and
comprehensiveness.
• Pilot study or trial run will help to develop most appropriate items.

62. Advantages of Checklist
• Checklists allow inter-individual comparisons.
• It provides a simple method to record observation.
• It is useful in evaluating learning activities.
• Helpful in evaluating procedural work.
• Properly prepared, it allows the observer to contain the direct attention.
• Checklists have the objectivity to evaluate characteristics.
• Useful for evaluating those processes that can be subdivided into a series
of actions.
• Decreases the chances of errors in observation especially error of leniency
hence, no rating or degree of performance is observed.

63. Disadvantages of Checklist
• In many situations, summative scoring (overall score) and
interpretation of scores will be difficult.
• Does not indicate quality or degree of performance, so usefulness of
checklist is limited.
• It has a limited use in qualitative research studies.

64. RATING SCALE
• Rating scales provide systematic procedures for obtaining, recording
and reporting the observer’s judgement.
• Instead of merely indicating the presence or absence of a trait or
characteristic, it enables us to indicate the degree to which a trait is
present.

65. Types of Rating Scales
Graphic Scale
• In graphic rating scale, each characteristic is followed by a horizontal
line.
• A set of categories identifies specific positions along the line to form
continuum and the rater indicates his rating by simply marking a tick
at the appropriate point on a line that run from one extreme to the
other.

67. Numerical Rating Scale
• The rater simply marks a number that indicates the extent to which a
characteristic or trait is present.
• The trait is presented as a statement and values from 1 to 5 are
assigned to each trait that is rated.

69. Descriptive Rating Scale
• These types of rating scales do not use number but divide the
categories into series of verbal phrases to indicate the level of
performance.

70. Advantages of Rating Scales
• It will direct and focus observation toward specific aspects of behavior.
• It will provide a common frame of reference for comparing all participants
on the same set of characteristics.
• They can be efficient and economical in the use.
• It is used to evaluate performance, skills and product outcomes.
• They can be comprehensive in the amount of information recorded.
• They can be help to reduce the subjectivity and unreliability that are
usually associated with observation methods.
• Rating scales are useful in wide range of applications. Rating scales may
also be used with a large number of properties or variables.

71. Limitations
• Some characteristics are more difficult to rate.
• Subjectivity element is present.
• Lack of opportunities to rate students.
• Raters tend to be generally generous.
• The measurements obtained from the rating scale are largely based
on assumptions and judgements of the raters.
• Three types of errors are common
• 1. Error of Leniency,
• 2. Error of central tendency
• 3. Error of Halo effect

72. Biophysiological Methods
• Biophysical method involves the collection of biophysical data from
subjects by using the specialized equipment to determine physical
and biological status of subjects.

73. Types of Biophysiological Methods
• In Vivo Biophysiological Methods - Performed directly to measure
processes occurring internally within living organisms through
medical or surgical instruments, e.g., TPR, BP monitoring
• In Vitro Biophysiological Methods - Physiological processes are
measured and analyses done outside the organism, e.g., blood tests

74. Advantages of Biophysiological Methods
• Biophysiological measures are relatively more accurate and error-less
• Biophysiological measures are more objective in nature.
• Provide valid measures for targeted variables.
• Easy access to most of the instruments used for Biophysiological
measurements. The instruments used for Biophysiological
measurements are easily available in hospital settings, which are used
for routine patient care.

75. Disadvantages of Biophysiological Methods
• Some of the instruments used for Biophysiological measurements are very
expensive.
• The use of Biophysiological method requires significant amount of training,
knowledge, and experience.
• The results produced by the Biophysiological measurements instruments may be
affected by the environment and caliberation, for example, auxiliary temperature
recording in a room with or without air conditioning may have different readings.
• The use of Biophysiological measurement instruments may cause fear and
anxiety among participants. For example, the collection of blood sample for
Biophysiological measurements may have traumatic impact on the subjects.
• The use of some of the Biophysiological methods may have harmful effect on the
participants such as repeated exposure to X-ray increase the health risk for study
subjects