The document discusses research methods used in psychology, including experiments, observations, questionnaires, interviews, and case studies. It provides examples of how to identify independent and dependent variables, operationalize variables, and design observational studies. Key terms are defined, such as aims, hypotheses, reliability, and ethics. Research methods each have advantages and disadvantages for different types of studies.
This document is a research report on female foeticide in India. It includes an introduction outlining the problem of female foeticide, a literature review of methodologies like case studies and questionnaires, and an analysis of the causes and impacts of female foeticide in India. The causes discussed include societal preferences for sons, the dowry system, and gender discrimination. Impacts mentioned are the declining child sex ratio in India and negative consequences for women. The report aims to understand reasons for female foeticide and question the effectiveness of laws in addressing the problem.
This document discusses experimental research design. It begins by outlining the scientific approach to research and some key assumptions of experimental design, including controlling variables and manipulating independent variables.
It then defines experimental design and discusses the importance of controlling extraneous variables. It identifies the key steps in conducting an experiment, including selecting variables, specifying treatment levels, controlling the environment, choosing a design, selecting subjects, pilot testing, and analyzing data.
The document also discusses the differences between internal and external validity in experiments. It outlines three main types of experimental designs - true experiments, quasi-experiments, and pre-experiments - and provides examples of designs within each type. It concludes by discussing the advantages and disadvantages of true experiments and quasi
This document discusses various methods for collecting data in research. It describes two types of data: primary and secondary. Primary data is collected directly by the researcher, while secondary data was previously collected by someone else.
The document outlines several methods for collecting primary data, including observation, interviews, questionnaires, and schedules. It provides details on observation and interview methods. Observation can be structured, unstructured, participant, or non-participant. Interviews can be personal or over the telephone. The document also discusses distinguishing features of experiments and surveys.
This document provides an overview of research methods. It defines research as a systematic, careful examination aimed at discovering and establishing facts or principles. Research is classified in several ways, including by purpose (predictive, directive, illuminative), goal (basic/pure vs applied), level of investigation (exploratory, descriptive, experimental), scope (action research), choice of answers to problems (evaluation research, developmental research), and statistical content (quantitative vs qualitative). The key aspects of various research types are outlined at a high level.
This document discusses different types of research designs, specifically experiments. It covers key components of experimental designs like independent and dependent variables, experimental and control groups, pre-testing and post-testing. Various threats to internal and external validity are explained, such as history, maturation, testing, instrumentation. Different experimental designs are presented like one-group pre-test post-test, static-group comparison. Strengths and weaknesses of experiments are that they allow manipulation and control but can lack generalizability and be expensive. Validity is important to evaluate whether conclusions can be supported.
This document discusses defining a research question and provides guidance on framing a question. It explains that good questions come from various sources and outlines factors to consider, such as whether the question addresses an important problem, potential impact, and feasibility. The document also discusses framing questions using PICO elements and provides examples of refining questions for systematic reviews or trials based on inclusion criteria. Overall, it emphasizes the importance of taking time to properly define the research question.
This document outlines the typical steps involved in conducting research, from initially observing a broad topic area and reviewing relevant literature, to defining the specific research problem, formulating research questions and hypotheses, designing a study methodology, collecting and analyzing data, and determining if research questions were answered and hypotheses supported. It emphasizes developing a clear problem statement and research questions to guide the purpose and focus of the study.
Research question, criteria, formulation, and relation to research designs.Tarek Tawfik Amin
Research question, research problems, sources of research questions, formulation, relation to the type of designs, criteria, testing novelty and originality
This document is a research report on female foeticide in India. It includes an introduction outlining the problem of female foeticide, a literature review of methodologies like case studies and questionnaires, and an analysis of the causes and impacts of female foeticide in India. The causes discussed include societal preferences for sons, the dowry system, and gender discrimination. Impacts mentioned are the declining child sex ratio in India and negative consequences for women. The report aims to understand reasons for female foeticide and question the effectiveness of laws in addressing the problem.
This document discusses experimental research design. It begins by outlining the scientific approach to research and some key assumptions of experimental design, including controlling variables and manipulating independent variables.
It then defines experimental design and discusses the importance of controlling extraneous variables. It identifies the key steps in conducting an experiment, including selecting variables, specifying treatment levels, controlling the environment, choosing a design, selecting subjects, pilot testing, and analyzing data.
The document also discusses the differences between internal and external validity in experiments. It outlines three main types of experimental designs - true experiments, quasi-experiments, and pre-experiments - and provides examples of designs within each type. It concludes by discussing the advantages and disadvantages of true experiments and quasi
This document discusses various methods for collecting data in research. It describes two types of data: primary and secondary. Primary data is collected directly by the researcher, while secondary data was previously collected by someone else.
The document outlines several methods for collecting primary data, including observation, interviews, questionnaires, and schedules. It provides details on observation and interview methods. Observation can be structured, unstructured, participant, or non-participant. Interviews can be personal or over the telephone. The document also discusses distinguishing features of experiments and surveys.
This document provides an overview of research methods. It defines research as a systematic, careful examination aimed at discovering and establishing facts or principles. Research is classified in several ways, including by purpose (predictive, directive, illuminative), goal (basic/pure vs applied), level of investigation (exploratory, descriptive, experimental), scope (action research), choice of answers to problems (evaluation research, developmental research), and statistical content (quantitative vs qualitative). The key aspects of various research types are outlined at a high level.
This document discusses different types of research designs, specifically experiments. It covers key components of experimental designs like independent and dependent variables, experimental and control groups, pre-testing and post-testing. Various threats to internal and external validity are explained, such as history, maturation, testing, instrumentation. Different experimental designs are presented like one-group pre-test post-test, static-group comparison. Strengths and weaknesses of experiments are that they allow manipulation and control but can lack generalizability and be expensive. Validity is important to evaluate whether conclusions can be supported.
This document discusses defining a research question and provides guidance on framing a question. It explains that good questions come from various sources and outlines factors to consider, such as whether the question addresses an important problem, potential impact, and feasibility. The document also discusses framing questions using PICO elements and provides examples of refining questions for systematic reviews or trials based on inclusion criteria. Overall, it emphasizes the importance of taking time to properly define the research question.
This document outlines the typical steps involved in conducting research, from initially observing a broad topic area and reviewing relevant literature, to defining the specific research problem, formulating research questions and hypotheses, designing a study methodology, collecting and analyzing data, and determining if research questions were answered and hypotheses supported. It emphasizes developing a clear problem statement and research questions to guide the purpose and focus of the study.
Research question, criteria, formulation, and relation to research designs.Tarek Tawfik Amin
Research question, research problems, sources of research questions, formulation, relation to the type of designs, criteria, testing novelty and originality
This document provides an overview of survey research methods. It defines a survey as a research method that collects information from a sample group using standardized questionnaires or interviews. The key steps in conducting a survey are defined as: 1) defining the objective, 2) constructing the questionnaire, 3) determining the method, 4) testing the questionnaire, 5) administering the questionnaire, 6) analyzing the data, and 7) writing a report. The document also discusses types of survey questions, sampling procedures, data collection techniques, and how to analyze and discuss the results.
The document discusses hypotheses, providing definitions and discussing the nature, types, and formulation of hypotheses. It defines a hypothesis as a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables that can be tested. The main types discussed are the null hypothesis, which represents a theory to be tested, and the alternative hypothesis, which is the opposite of the null hypothesis. It also discusses how hypotheses are formulated differently for qualitative versus quantitative research, with qualitative research often using research questions rather than hypotheses.
This slideshow was created with images from the web. I claim no copyright or ownership of any images. If a copyright owner of any image objects to the use in this slideshow, contact me to remove it. This is for a course in Introductory Psychology using Wayne Weiten's "Psychology: Themes and Variations" 8th ed. Published by Cengage. Images from the text are copyrighted by Cengage.
MELJUN CORTES research seminar_1_selecting_a_problem_and_reviewing_the_researchMELJUN CORTES
The document discusses selecting a research problem and reviewing literature. It advises choosing a problem that interests you and is doable. Falling in love with your first idea can be risky, so consider alternatives. Review general sources to explore topics before examining secondary sources that summarize research and primary sources with specific studies. Carefully evaluate research by considering factors like the problem, hypotheses, methods, and results. Ethical research requires protecting participants and obtaining informed consent. The literature review should have a unified theme and be organized with an outline.
Qualitative research focuses on data that cannot be expressed numerically and aims to develop new concepts through description and interpretation. There are several types of qualitative research including ethnography, grounded theory, and interpretative phenomenological analysis. Data collection methods involve interviews, focus groups, observation, and reviewing documents. Qualitative analysis involves interpreting responses to uncover implied meanings and identify important themes through constant comparison of data. Constant comparison involves open coding, progressive focusing, and summarizing interpretations. Keeping organized records is also important for qualitative analysis.
This document discusses key concepts in research design. It defines research design as a plan or strategy to obtain answers to research questions and test hypotheses. There are different types of research designs, including exploratory, descriptive, experimental, and observational. The document outlines important elements of research design like dependent and independent variables, control of extraneous variables, research hypotheses, experimental and control groups, and treatments. Overall, it provides an overview of fundamental concepts in research methodology and design that are important for conducting rigorous academic research.
This document provides an overview of qualitative research methods. It discusses different qualitative research designs including case studies, ethnography, grounded theory, phenomenology, and participatory research. It covers sampling strategies for qualitative research, ensuring trustworthiness, and common data collection methods such as observation, document review, and interviews. The goal of qualitative research is to provide an in-depth understanding of phenomena rather than generalizable results.
This document discusses different types of research designs, including quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods designs. It provides details on the following key points:
- Quantitative designs use numeric data and statistical analysis to objectively study variables and answer narrow questions. Experimental and survey designs are discussed.
- Qualitative designs rely on text data from open-ended questions and themes to subjectively understand participant perspectives. Narrative research, phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography, and case study designs are outlined.
- Mixed methods designs combine quantitative and qualitative data and are used when one approach cannot fully answer the research questions. Sequential explanatory, sequential exploratory, concurrent triangulation, and concurrent nested designs are described.
The document discusses different types of descriptive and exploratory research methods. Descriptive research aims to describe phenomena or characteristics of individuals or groups, while exploratory research focuses on relationships between factors. Descriptive and exploratory research can be combined depending on the research question. Case studies provide an in-depth description of an individual or group and can generate hypotheses. Developmental research describes changes over time using longitudinal or cross-sectional methods. Normative studies establish typical values for populations. Qualitative research seeks to understand perspectives through interviews and observations. Exploratory research investigates relationships between variables using correlation, regression, and hypothesis testing.
This document provides an overview of research methodology submitted by Debanjan Parbat for his PhD examination. It discusses the definition of research, objectives, importance, types of research, stages of research, anatomy of a research paper, research ethics and guidelines. The introduction defines research methodology as the systematic study of methods used in research. It aims to provide a work plan for conducting research. The document thoroughly examines the various components and attributes of the research process.
The document provides an overview of different types of research designs including experimental, quasi-experimental, ex-post facto, correlational, and their key features. Experimental designs aim to test hypotheses and establish causation through random assignment and manipulation of independent variables. Quasi-experimental designs are similar but do not use random assignment. Ex-post facto designs examine causes of effects that have already occurred. Correlational designs measure relationships between non-manipulated variables. Different designs have advantages for different research questions depending on feasibility and need for control.
This document discusses various research designs and methods used in psychological research. It describes how psychological research questions are developed and how theories and hypotheses guide research. Observational, experimental, correlational, longitudinal and other research designs are explained along with their strengths and limitations. Key considerations for psychological research like validity, reliability, ethics and statistical analysis are also covered.
This document discusses what research is and is not. It states that research is a systematic search for new knowledge, moving from the known to the unknown, as defined by several experts. The objectives of research are to discover new facts, verify important facts, analyze phenomena to identify relationships, develop new tools and theories, solve problems, and overcome life's problems. The document also discusses common motivations for doing research such as obtaining degrees, employment, solving challenges, gaining recognition, and serving society.
This document discusses sample selection and sample size calculation in research. It defines key sampling concepts like the study population, sampling units, sample, and sampling frame. It also covers different sampling designs including random, non-random, and systematic sampling. The document emphasizes that sample size needs to be calculated to avoid biases and ensure sufficient power. It presents formulas for calculating sample sizes for estimating means and proportions. Examples are provided to estimate the required sample size for measuring exercise duration and the proportion with metabolic syndrome. The overall aim is to help students understand sampling methodology and sample size determination.
Types of research designs presented include:
1. Experimental designs such as randomized controlled trials which test hypotheses by introducing treatments to test groups.
2. Observational designs including cross-sectional studies which observe exposures and outcomes at one time, cohort studies which follow groups over time, and case-control studies which identify cases and controls retrospectively.
3. Exploratory designs like surveys to generate hypotheses.
Effective research design involves controlling confounding variables, maximizing differences in research variables, and minimizing errors to draw valid conclusions. The type of design chosen depends on the research question.
This document summarizes the key components of a research study design conducted by Hungerford et al. It describes the overall research question, type of design, setting, participants, variables, hypotheses, and statistical testing used in the study. Specifically, the study aimed to determine the feasibility of screening and brief alcohol interventions with young adults in an emergency department. It used a non-randomized cohort design to recruit participants between ages 18-39 who had consumed alcohol in the past 12 months. The independent variables were screening results (positive or negative) and legal drinking age. Dependent variables included post-intervention behaviors. Appropriate research questions and hypotheses were formulated based on these variables.
WHERE TO START CHP. 2LEARNING OBJECTIVES· Discuss how a hypo.docxphilipnelson29183
WHERE TO START CHP. 2
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
· Discuss how a hypothesis differs from a prediction.
· Describe the different sources of ideas for research, including common sense, observation, theories, past research, and practical problems.
· Identify the two functions of a theory.
· Summarize the fundamentals of conducting library research in psychology, including the use of PsycINFO.
· Summarize the information included in the abstract, introduction, method, results, and discussion sections of research articles.
Page 21THE MOTIVATION TO CONDUCT SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH DERIVES FROM A NATURAL CURIOSITY ABOUT THE WORLD. Most people have their first experience with research when their curiosity leads them to ask, “I wonder what would happen if …” or “I wonder why …,” followed by an attempt to answer the question. What are the sources of inspiration for such questions? How do you find out about other people's ideas and past research? In this chapter, we will explore some sources of scientific ideas. We will also consider the nature of research reports published in professional journals.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS, HYPOTHESES, AND PREDICTIONS
The result of curiosity is a question. Researchers use research questions to identify and describe the broad topic that they are investigating, and then conduct research in order to answer their research questions. A good research question identifies the topic of inquiry specifically enough so that hypotheses and predictions can be made. A hypothesis is also a question; it makes a statement about something that may be true. Hypotheses are more specific versions of research questions; they are directly testable whereas a research question may not be. Thus, a hypothesis is a tentative idea or question that is waiting for evidence to support or refute it. Once a hypothesis is proposed, data must be gathered and evaluated in terms of whether the evidence is consistent or inconsistent with the hypothesis. Researchers also make specific predictions concerning the outcome of research. Where a research question is broad and a hypothesis is more specific, a prediction is a guess at the outcome of a hypothesis. If a prediction is confirmed by the results of the study, the hypothesis is supported. If the prediction is not confirmed, the researcher will either reject the hypothesis or conduct further research using different methods to study the hypothesis. It is important to note that when the results of a study confirm a prediction, the hypothesis is only supported, not proven. Researchers study the same hypothesis using a variety of methods, and each time this hypothesis is supported by a research study, we become more confident that the hypothesis is correct.
Figure 2.1 shows the relationships among research questions, hypotheses, and predictions graphically. As an example, consider Cramer, Mayer, and Ryan (2007). They had general questions about college students’ use of cell phones while driving: “Are there differences among gro.
The document provides an overview of psychological research methods. It defines research as systematic inquiry aimed at understanding human behavior and mental processes. Various research methods are described, including experimental, quasi-experimental, and non-experimental designs. Key aspects of the research process like developing hypotheses, collecting both qualitative and quantitative data, ensuring reliability and validity, and addressing ethical considerations are summarized.
This document contains extensive information about the research types applicable to social science researchers. It also helps to have a clear and in-depth awareness of the various types of research including the broad distinction between Qualitative and Quantitative Research.
Research methods can generally be divided into two main categories: Quantitative and Qualitative. This webinar will provide an overview of quantitative methods with a brief distinction between quantitative and qualitative methods. We will focus on when and how to use quantitative research and discuss type of variables and statistical analysis.
Presentation will be led by Dr. Carlos Cardillo.
About CORE:
The Culture of Research and Education (C.O.R.E.) webinar series is spearheaded by Dr. Bernice B. Rumala, CORE Chair & Program Director of the Ph.D. in Health Sciences program in collaboration with leaders and faculty across all academic programs.
This innovative and wide-ranging series is designed to provide continuing education, skills-building techniques, and tools for academic and professional development. These sessions will provide a unique chance to build your professional development toolkit through presentations, discussions, and workshops with Trident’s world-class faculty.
For further information about CORE or to present, you may contact Dr. Bernice B. Rumala at Bernice.rumala@trident.edu
This document provides an overview of psychological research methods. It discusses conducting research through forming a research question and hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, analyzing results, and drawing conclusions. It also covers surveys and sampling, noting the importance of proper sampling techniques to accurately represent populations. Key methods of observation and the experimental method are mentioned. Ethical issues in research are also briefly addressed.
This document provides an overview of qualitative research methods and question formulation. It discusses key aspects of qualitative research including theoretical backgrounds in ethnography, phenomenology and grounded theory. Examples of qualitative research questions and methods like observation and interviews are provided. The importance of qualitative research in understanding human experiences and perspectives is highlighted. Guidance on formulating focused qualitative research questions using frameworks like PICO, SPICE, ProPheT and CLIP is also given.
This document provides an overview of survey research methods. It defines a survey as a research method that collects information from a sample group using standardized questionnaires or interviews. The key steps in conducting a survey are defined as: 1) defining the objective, 2) constructing the questionnaire, 3) determining the method, 4) testing the questionnaire, 5) administering the questionnaire, 6) analyzing the data, and 7) writing a report. The document also discusses types of survey questions, sampling procedures, data collection techniques, and how to analyze and discuss the results.
The document discusses hypotheses, providing definitions and discussing the nature, types, and formulation of hypotheses. It defines a hypothesis as a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables that can be tested. The main types discussed are the null hypothesis, which represents a theory to be tested, and the alternative hypothesis, which is the opposite of the null hypothesis. It also discusses how hypotheses are formulated differently for qualitative versus quantitative research, with qualitative research often using research questions rather than hypotheses.
This slideshow was created with images from the web. I claim no copyright or ownership of any images. If a copyright owner of any image objects to the use in this slideshow, contact me to remove it. This is for a course in Introductory Psychology using Wayne Weiten's "Psychology: Themes and Variations" 8th ed. Published by Cengage. Images from the text are copyrighted by Cengage.
MELJUN CORTES research seminar_1_selecting_a_problem_and_reviewing_the_researchMELJUN CORTES
The document discusses selecting a research problem and reviewing literature. It advises choosing a problem that interests you and is doable. Falling in love with your first idea can be risky, so consider alternatives. Review general sources to explore topics before examining secondary sources that summarize research and primary sources with specific studies. Carefully evaluate research by considering factors like the problem, hypotheses, methods, and results. Ethical research requires protecting participants and obtaining informed consent. The literature review should have a unified theme and be organized with an outline.
Qualitative research focuses on data that cannot be expressed numerically and aims to develop new concepts through description and interpretation. There are several types of qualitative research including ethnography, grounded theory, and interpretative phenomenological analysis. Data collection methods involve interviews, focus groups, observation, and reviewing documents. Qualitative analysis involves interpreting responses to uncover implied meanings and identify important themes through constant comparison of data. Constant comparison involves open coding, progressive focusing, and summarizing interpretations. Keeping organized records is also important for qualitative analysis.
This document discusses key concepts in research design. It defines research design as a plan or strategy to obtain answers to research questions and test hypotheses. There are different types of research designs, including exploratory, descriptive, experimental, and observational. The document outlines important elements of research design like dependent and independent variables, control of extraneous variables, research hypotheses, experimental and control groups, and treatments. Overall, it provides an overview of fundamental concepts in research methodology and design that are important for conducting rigorous academic research.
This document provides an overview of qualitative research methods. It discusses different qualitative research designs including case studies, ethnography, grounded theory, phenomenology, and participatory research. It covers sampling strategies for qualitative research, ensuring trustworthiness, and common data collection methods such as observation, document review, and interviews. The goal of qualitative research is to provide an in-depth understanding of phenomena rather than generalizable results.
This document discusses different types of research designs, including quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods designs. It provides details on the following key points:
- Quantitative designs use numeric data and statistical analysis to objectively study variables and answer narrow questions. Experimental and survey designs are discussed.
- Qualitative designs rely on text data from open-ended questions and themes to subjectively understand participant perspectives. Narrative research, phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography, and case study designs are outlined.
- Mixed methods designs combine quantitative and qualitative data and are used when one approach cannot fully answer the research questions. Sequential explanatory, sequential exploratory, concurrent triangulation, and concurrent nested designs are described.
The document discusses different types of descriptive and exploratory research methods. Descriptive research aims to describe phenomena or characteristics of individuals or groups, while exploratory research focuses on relationships between factors. Descriptive and exploratory research can be combined depending on the research question. Case studies provide an in-depth description of an individual or group and can generate hypotheses. Developmental research describes changes over time using longitudinal or cross-sectional methods. Normative studies establish typical values for populations. Qualitative research seeks to understand perspectives through interviews and observations. Exploratory research investigates relationships between variables using correlation, regression, and hypothesis testing.
This document provides an overview of research methodology submitted by Debanjan Parbat for his PhD examination. It discusses the definition of research, objectives, importance, types of research, stages of research, anatomy of a research paper, research ethics and guidelines. The introduction defines research methodology as the systematic study of methods used in research. It aims to provide a work plan for conducting research. The document thoroughly examines the various components and attributes of the research process.
The document provides an overview of different types of research designs including experimental, quasi-experimental, ex-post facto, correlational, and their key features. Experimental designs aim to test hypotheses and establish causation through random assignment and manipulation of independent variables. Quasi-experimental designs are similar but do not use random assignment. Ex-post facto designs examine causes of effects that have already occurred. Correlational designs measure relationships between non-manipulated variables. Different designs have advantages for different research questions depending on feasibility and need for control.
This document discusses various research designs and methods used in psychological research. It describes how psychological research questions are developed and how theories and hypotheses guide research. Observational, experimental, correlational, longitudinal and other research designs are explained along with their strengths and limitations. Key considerations for psychological research like validity, reliability, ethics and statistical analysis are also covered.
This document discusses what research is and is not. It states that research is a systematic search for new knowledge, moving from the known to the unknown, as defined by several experts. The objectives of research are to discover new facts, verify important facts, analyze phenomena to identify relationships, develop new tools and theories, solve problems, and overcome life's problems. The document also discusses common motivations for doing research such as obtaining degrees, employment, solving challenges, gaining recognition, and serving society.
This document discusses sample selection and sample size calculation in research. It defines key sampling concepts like the study population, sampling units, sample, and sampling frame. It also covers different sampling designs including random, non-random, and systematic sampling. The document emphasizes that sample size needs to be calculated to avoid biases and ensure sufficient power. It presents formulas for calculating sample sizes for estimating means and proportions. Examples are provided to estimate the required sample size for measuring exercise duration and the proportion with metabolic syndrome. The overall aim is to help students understand sampling methodology and sample size determination.
Types of research designs presented include:
1. Experimental designs such as randomized controlled trials which test hypotheses by introducing treatments to test groups.
2. Observational designs including cross-sectional studies which observe exposures and outcomes at one time, cohort studies which follow groups over time, and case-control studies which identify cases and controls retrospectively.
3. Exploratory designs like surveys to generate hypotheses.
Effective research design involves controlling confounding variables, maximizing differences in research variables, and minimizing errors to draw valid conclusions. The type of design chosen depends on the research question.
This document summarizes the key components of a research study design conducted by Hungerford et al. It describes the overall research question, type of design, setting, participants, variables, hypotheses, and statistical testing used in the study. Specifically, the study aimed to determine the feasibility of screening and brief alcohol interventions with young adults in an emergency department. It used a non-randomized cohort design to recruit participants between ages 18-39 who had consumed alcohol in the past 12 months. The independent variables were screening results (positive or negative) and legal drinking age. Dependent variables included post-intervention behaviors. Appropriate research questions and hypotheses were formulated based on these variables.
WHERE TO START CHP. 2LEARNING OBJECTIVES· Discuss how a hypo.docxphilipnelson29183
WHERE TO START CHP. 2
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
· Discuss how a hypothesis differs from a prediction.
· Describe the different sources of ideas for research, including common sense, observation, theories, past research, and practical problems.
· Identify the two functions of a theory.
· Summarize the fundamentals of conducting library research in psychology, including the use of PsycINFO.
· Summarize the information included in the abstract, introduction, method, results, and discussion sections of research articles.
Page 21THE MOTIVATION TO CONDUCT SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH DERIVES FROM A NATURAL CURIOSITY ABOUT THE WORLD. Most people have their first experience with research when their curiosity leads them to ask, “I wonder what would happen if …” or “I wonder why …,” followed by an attempt to answer the question. What are the sources of inspiration for such questions? How do you find out about other people's ideas and past research? In this chapter, we will explore some sources of scientific ideas. We will also consider the nature of research reports published in professional journals.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS, HYPOTHESES, AND PREDICTIONS
The result of curiosity is a question. Researchers use research questions to identify and describe the broad topic that they are investigating, and then conduct research in order to answer their research questions. A good research question identifies the topic of inquiry specifically enough so that hypotheses and predictions can be made. A hypothesis is also a question; it makes a statement about something that may be true. Hypotheses are more specific versions of research questions; they are directly testable whereas a research question may not be. Thus, a hypothesis is a tentative idea or question that is waiting for evidence to support or refute it. Once a hypothesis is proposed, data must be gathered and evaluated in terms of whether the evidence is consistent or inconsistent with the hypothesis. Researchers also make specific predictions concerning the outcome of research. Where a research question is broad and a hypothesis is more specific, a prediction is a guess at the outcome of a hypothesis. If a prediction is confirmed by the results of the study, the hypothesis is supported. If the prediction is not confirmed, the researcher will either reject the hypothesis or conduct further research using different methods to study the hypothesis. It is important to note that when the results of a study confirm a prediction, the hypothesis is only supported, not proven. Researchers study the same hypothesis using a variety of methods, and each time this hypothesis is supported by a research study, we become more confident that the hypothesis is correct.
Figure 2.1 shows the relationships among research questions, hypotheses, and predictions graphically. As an example, consider Cramer, Mayer, and Ryan (2007). They had general questions about college students’ use of cell phones while driving: “Are there differences among gro.
The document provides an overview of psychological research methods. It defines research as systematic inquiry aimed at understanding human behavior and mental processes. Various research methods are described, including experimental, quasi-experimental, and non-experimental designs. Key aspects of the research process like developing hypotheses, collecting both qualitative and quantitative data, ensuring reliability and validity, and addressing ethical considerations are summarized.
This document contains extensive information about the research types applicable to social science researchers. It also helps to have a clear and in-depth awareness of the various types of research including the broad distinction between Qualitative and Quantitative Research.
Research methods can generally be divided into two main categories: Quantitative and Qualitative. This webinar will provide an overview of quantitative methods with a brief distinction between quantitative and qualitative methods. We will focus on when and how to use quantitative research and discuss type of variables and statistical analysis.
Presentation will be led by Dr. Carlos Cardillo.
About CORE:
The Culture of Research and Education (C.O.R.E.) webinar series is spearheaded by Dr. Bernice B. Rumala, CORE Chair & Program Director of the Ph.D. in Health Sciences program in collaboration with leaders and faculty across all academic programs.
This innovative and wide-ranging series is designed to provide continuing education, skills-building techniques, and tools for academic and professional development. These sessions will provide a unique chance to build your professional development toolkit through presentations, discussions, and workshops with Trident’s world-class faculty.
For further information about CORE or to present, you may contact Dr. Bernice B. Rumala at Bernice.rumala@trident.edu
This document provides an overview of psychological research methods. It discusses conducting research through forming a research question and hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, analyzing results, and drawing conclusions. It also covers surveys and sampling, noting the importance of proper sampling techniques to accurately represent populations. Key methods of observation and the experimental method are mentioned. Ethical issues in research are also briefly addressed.
This document provides an overview of qualitative research methods and question formulation. It discusses key aspects of qualitative research including theoretical backgrounds in ethnography, phenomenology and grounded theory. Examples of qualitative research questions and methods like observation and interviews are provided. The importance of qualitative research in understanding human experiences and perspectives is highlighted. Guidance on formulating focused qualitative research questions using frameworks like PICO, SPICE, ProPheT and CLIP is also given.
The document provides an overview of research methods in psychology. It discusses the key stages of conducting research including formulating an operational hypothesis, designing the experiment, collecting and analyzing data, and reporting findings. It also defines important terms like participants, independent and dependent variables, and different sampling methods like random sampling and stratified sampling. Experimental and correlational methods are the main focus. Ethics approval is required before conducting research with people.
Psychology is the scientific study of human behavior and mind. Psychologists conduct research using systematic methods to measure behavior objectively and reduce biases. There are four major forms of research in psychology: experimental research, correlation research, interviews, and surveys. Experimental research uses controlled techniques to test hypotheses, while correlational research examines relationships between variables without manipulation. Interviews and surveys assess behaviors, opinions, and feelings through direct questions.
Use the Capella library to locate two psychology research articles.docxdickonsondorris
Use the Capella library to locate two psychology research articles: a quantitative methods article and a qualitative methods article. These do not need to be on the same topic, but if you have a research topic in mind for your proposal (see Assessment 5), you may wish to pick something similar for this assessment. Read each article carefully.
Then, in a 2–3-page assessment, address the following elements:
1 Summarize the research question and hypothesis, the research methods, and the overall findings.
2 Compare the research methodologies used in each study. In what ways are the methodologies similar? In what ways are they different? (Be sure to use the technical psychological terms we are studying.)
3 Describe the sample and sample size for each study. Which one used a larger sample and why? How were participants selected?
4 Describe the data collection process for each study. What methods were used to collect the data? Surveys? Observations? Interviews? Be specific and discuss the instruments or measures fully—what do they measure? How is the test designed?
5 Summarize the data analysis process for each study. How was the data analyzed? Were statistics used? Were interviews coded?
6 In conclusion, craft 1–2 paragraphs explaining how these two articles illustrate the main differences between quantitative and qualitative research.
Additional Requirements
· Written communication: Written communication should be free of errors that detract from the overall message.
· APA formatting: Your assessment should be formatted according to APA (6th ed.) style and formatting.
· Length: A typical response will be 2–3 typed and double-spaced pages.
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Research Methods
There are many different types of research studies, and the type of study that is done depends very much on the research question. Some studies demand strictly numerical data, such as a comparison of GPA among different college majors or weight loss among different types of eating programs. Others require more in-depth data, like interview responses. Such studies might include the lived experience of people that have been through a terrorist attack or understanding the experience of being physically disabled on a college campus. While there are a number of different types of studies that can be done, all of them fall under two basic categories: quantitative and qualitative.
Quantitative Research
Quantitative research deals with numerical data. This means that any topic you study in a quantitative study must be quantifiable—grades, weight, height, depression, and intelligence are all things that can be quantified on some scale of measurement. Quantitative data is often considered hard data—numbers are seen as concrete, irrefutable evidence, but we have to take into account a number of factors that could impact such data. Errors in measurement and recording of such data, as well as the influence of other factors outside those in the study, make for ...
1. The research design is the overall plan for how data will be collected in a study. There are several types of research designs including experimental, cross-sectional, time series, longitudinal, case study, and ethnography.
2. For any study, a sample will need to be selected from the overall population due to limitations in studying the entire population. There are both probability and non-probability sampling methods that can be used.
3. Research designs must also consider ethical issues to protect participants. Approval from an ethics committee is often required before conducting research.
This document discusses experimental research design. It begins by outlining the scientific approach to research, which includes assumptions that nature is orderly, phenomena have natural causes, and knowledge is superior to ignorance. It then defines research design and describes different types, focusing on experimental design. Experimental design involves manipulating an independent variable in a controlled setting to observe its impact on a dependent variable. The document outlines the steps to conducting an experiment, including selecting variables, specifying treatment levels, controlling the environment, choosing a design, selecting subjects, implementing treatments, collecting data, and analyzing results. It emphasizes that proper experimental design allows for testing hypotheses and distinguishing between competing theories.
This document discusses experimental research design. It begins by outlining the scientific approach and assumptions of research, including that nature is orderly, phenomena have natural causes, and knowledge is superior to ignorance. It then defines research design and different types of designs, focusing on experimental design. Experimental design involves manipulating an independent variable in a controlled setting to observe its impact on a dependent variable. The document outlines the steps to conducting an experiment, including selecting variables, specifying treatment levels, controlling the environment, choosing a design, selecting subjects, implementing treatments, collecting data, and analyzing results. It emphasizes that proper experimental design allows for testing hypotheses and distinguishing between competing theories.
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This document discusses different dimensions for characterizing research projects, including topic, novelty, technology, scope, mode, methods, ideology, politics, and utility. It provides examples of different types of projects that fall under each dimension, such as observational vs. interventionist studies. The document emphasizes that research projects can be understood as existing in a multidimensional space defined by these dimensions, and that considering all relevant dimensions is important for designing and conducting a high-quality project.
The document outlines an assignment for a research methodology course. It contains 6 questions related to different types of research methods. Question 1 asks for examples of exploratory, descriptive, diagnostic, and evaluation research and why each would be used. Question 2 discusses differences between key concepts in hypothesis testing. Question 3 explains the difference between causal relationships and correlations with examples. Question 4 discusses factors in choosing a sampling technique and characteristics of a good sample. Question 5 asks students to select a topic and explain how secondary and primary sources would be used. Question 6 provides a case study on conducting a market survey for a newspaper.
CONCEPTUALIZATION AND PLANNING RESEARCH.pptxRuthJoshila
This document discusses the conceptual phase and design/planning phase of quantitative research. It covers developing a research problem by selecting and narrowing a topic, evaluating problems based on significance, researchability and feasibility. It also discusses formulating a final research problem statement. The conceptual phase also involves reviewing related literature and defining a theoretical framework. Developing hypotheses is also covered. The design/planning phase involves selecting a research design such as experimental, quasi-experimental, or pre-experimental designs. Key methodological decisions are made to ensure validity and credibility of study findings.
The document discusses different categories of research including:
- By type (primary vs secondary research)
- By objective (qualitative, quantitative, mixed methods)
- By form (exploratory, constructive, empirical research)
- By reasoning (deductive vs inductive reasoning)
It also briefly outlines four main research paradigms: postpositivism, social constructivism, advocacy/participatory, and pragmatism.
Our media product challenges some conventions of folk rock music videos while adhering to others. We kept the band members stationary while performing and did not include intertextual references. However, we challenged conventions regarding the treatment of females by not objectifying the one female character featured. Close-ups of the artists were used to highlight emotional lyrics as is typical in folk rock videos.
The document discusses conventions and techniques used in folk rock music videos. It notes that artists are typically shown performing alone in natural settings like forests or fields. Visuals are usually illustrative or amplifying of song lyrics. Close-ups of the artist are common to promote them as the brand. Artists usually have longer hair and wear simple, minimalist costumes. Movement in videos tends to be slow and subtle rather than dramatic. The positioning of band members is usually equal without one person in the foreground. Intertextuality with other works is rare in keeping with the genre's focus on original songwriting.
The document discusses conventions and techniques used in folk rock music videos. It notes that artists are typically shown performing alone in natural settings like forests or fields. Visuals are usually illustrative or amplifying of song lyrics. Close-ups of the artist are common to promote them as the brand. Artists usually have longer hair and wear simple, minimalist costumes. Movement in videos tends to be slow and languid rather than dramatic. Editing usually moves in time with the music. The document provides examples of how the student's video both uses, develops and challenges some conventions of the genre.
The document discusses conventions and characteristics of folk rock music videos. It analyzes how several videos use, develop, or challenge conventions. Key points:
1) Videos often show the artist alone performing in nature to highlight the music and depict the artist as introspective.
2) Visuals are usually illustrative of lyrics but sometimes amplify meanings. Relationships between music and visuals can be illustrative or develop meanings.
3) Record labels demand close-ups of artists to make them recognizable brands. Long hair on male artists implies authenticity from life experience.
This document outlines evaluation tasks and questions for a media production project on a band called "Jamie Thorn & The Mystery Pacific". It discusses how the group's music video, digipak, and magazine advert complement each other through consistent branding elements. Feedback was gathered from audiences but not detailed. A variety of new media technologies were used at different stages of the project, including online sharing platforms, video/audio recording and editing software, and research sites.
The document contains 8 questions asking for feedback on various aspects of a folk rock music video that was created, including the quality of filming, editing, resemblance to a real music video in the genre, pacing and syncing of visuals with music and lyrics, identified theme, suitability of shot content to the theme, appealing aspects of the style and content, and suggestions for improvement if remaking the video. It also contains 2 additional questions about the layout, content, clarity of information, and impression given by a digipak and advertisement.
The document discusses conventions and characteristics of folk rock music videos. It analyzes how our media product uses, develops, or challenges these conventions through its visuals and narrative. Our video shows the band playing surrounded by nature, keeping with conventions of folk artists depicted as close to nature. The visuals are sometimes illustrative of lyrics and sometimes amplify their meaning. The relationship between music and visuals is developed, with camera movements emphasizing parts of the song. Our video focuses on the artist through close-ups while keeping costumes simple, following conventions that draw attention to the music.
This document contains evaluation tasks related to a media production project for a band called "Jamie Thorn & The Mystery Pacific". The tasks include: [1] Analyzing how the media product uses, develops or challenges real media conventions; [2] Assessing how effective the main product and ancillary texts like a digipak and magazine ad work together; [3] Learning from audience feedback; and [4] Exploring the use of new media technologies in production.
This document outlines four evaluation tasks for a media production project:
1. Analyze how the media product uses, develops, or challenges conventions of real media products.
2. Assess how effectively the main product and ancillary texts like a digipak and magazine ad work together.
3. Consider what was learned from audience feedback.
4. Describe how new media technologies were used in construction, research, planning and evaluation.
This document compares the conventions of folk rock music videos to the student's own music video production. It finds that the student's video used many typical conventions, such as showing the band performing in a natural rural setting surrounded by trees and fields. It also finds that the student's video developed some conventions by having the music and visuals amplify each other rather than just illustrating the lyrics, such as when the music sped up as the man leapt into the sea. The document analyzes several examples of professional folk rock music videos and identifies their conventions around performance style, nature settings, relationships between music, lyrics and visuals, close-ups of artists, and notions of voyeurism.
The research found that audiences prefer the concept over performance or narrative in folk videos, discover new folk artists mostly through radio and friends/family, and watch folk music videos exclusively on YouTube. Audiences reported usually seeing the artist performing in folk videos, and album covers typically feature photographs of nature, animals or the artist/band.
The document provides details about researching and analyzing Digipak album covers for five folk rock bands: Cat Stevens, Laura Marling, Bon Iver, Mumford & Sons, and Simon & Garfunkel. It notes that folk rock album art often features hand-drawn or painted artwork rather than photographs. It then analyzes elements of the album covers like fonts, colors, backgrounds, and depictions of the artists that market them as introspective, wise, and connected to nature in keeping with folk rock themes.
This document discusses digipak album packaging for folk rock music. It provides details on what a digipak is and how it offers more creative design options than a jewel case. Research was conducted on the album art of 5 folk rock bands - Cat Stevens, Laura Marling, Bon Iver, Mumford & Sons, and Simon & Garfunkel. Most of their album covers featured hand-drawn or painted art rather than photographs, marketing the artist as having natural talent rather than relying on technology. This style of album art matches the folk rock genre's themes of being in touch with nature.
The majority (60%) of folk/folk rock fans prefer the concept over performance or narrative for music videos. Friends and family have the most influence (25%) on learning about new artists, followed by radio (21%). Nearly all (100%) fans watch folk music videos on YouTube rather than other platforms like MTV.
This document provides a script and filming directions for a music video. It includes the lyrics divided into verses and choruses, along with camera shots and angles to depict the performance and story being told in the song. The song tells the story of a soldier reflecting on fighting in war and losing friends, as well as the pressure to serve one's country. It ends with him wishing he had died among his friends rather than surviving alone.
HCL Notes und Domino Lizenzkostenreduzierung in der Welt von DLAUpanagenda
Webinar Recording: https://www.panagenda.com/webinars/hcl-notes-und-domino-lizenzkostenreduzierung-in-der-welt-von-dlau/
DLAU und die Lizenzen nach dem CCB- und CCX-Modell sind für viele in der HCL-Community seit letztem Jahr ein heißes Thema. Als Notes- oder Domino-Kunde haben Sie vielleicht mit unerwartet hohen Benutzerzahlen und Lizenzgebühren zu kämpfen. Sie fragen sich vielleicht, wie diese neue Art der Lizenzierung funktioniert und welchen Nutzen sie Ihnen bringt. Vor allem wollen Sie sicherlich Ihr Budget einhalten und Kosten sparen, wo immer möglich. Das verstehen wir und wir möchten Ihnen dabei helfen!
Wir erklären Ihnen, wie Sie häufige Konfigurationsprobleme lösen können, die dazu führen können, dass mehr Benutzer gezählt werden als nötig, und wie Sie überflüssige oder ungenutzte Konten identifizieren und entfernen können, um Geld zu sparen. Es gibt auch einige Ansätze, die zu unnötigen Ausgaben führen können, z. B. wenn ein Personendokument anstelle eines Mail-Ins für geteilte Mailboxen verwendet wird. Wir zeigen Ihnen solche Fälle und deren Lösungen. Und natürlich erklären wir Ihnen das neue Lizenzmodell.
Nehmen Sie an diesem Webinar teil, bei dem HCL-Ambassador Marc Thomas und Gastredner Franz Walder Ihnen diese neue Welt näherbringen. Es vermittelt Ihnen die Tools und das Know-how, um den Überblick zu bewahren. Sie werden in der Lage sein, Ihre Kosten durch eine optimierte Domino-Konfiguration zu reduzieren und auch in Zukunft gering zu halten.
Diese Themen werden behandelt
- Reduzierung der Lizenzkosten durch Auffinden und Beheben von Fehlkonfigurationen und überflüssigen Konten
- Wie funktionieren CCB- und CCX-Lizenzen wirklich?
- Verstehen des DLAU-Tools und wie man es am besten nutzt
- Tipps für häufige Problembereiche, wie z. B. Team-Postfächer, Funktions-/Testbenutzer usw.
- Praxisbeispiele und Best Practices zum sofortigen Umsetzen
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Y12 res meth workbook hanan
1. Psychology Department<br />‘Teneo mens, teneo totus’<br />AS Psychology (AQA, A)<br />Research Methods<br />Workbook<br />Name …………………………………………...<br />91440057785<br />Psyc hology at Graveney<br />Research Methods<br />(PYA 3)<br />6.1Quantitative and qualitativeNature and usage, advantages and disadvantages <br />research methods of: experiments, correlation analysis, observations, questionnaires, interviews, case studies <br />Pages 3-10<br />Assessment – completing Section 1 of the workbook<br />Experimental design and Aims and hypotheses<br />ImplementationResearch design<br />Factors associated with research design<br />Selection of participants<br />Relationship between researchers and participants<br />Pages 11-17<br />Assessment - completing Section 2 of the workbook<br />6.3Data analysis Analysis of qualitative data<br />Measures of central tendency and dispersion<br />Correlations <br />Graphs and charts<br />Pages 18-26<br />Assessment - completing Section 3 of the workbook<br />182880096520<br />Key terms Page 27 <br />Top tips for exams Page 28<br />Module assessment – Past exam paper<br /> <br />Section 1 - Quantitative and qualitative research methods<br />Research methods are the ways that psychologists investigate a theory. Different methods will be appropriate for different topics/theories/situations.<br />Quantitative = <br />Qualitative = Social Psychology<br />Experiments<br />Experiments are generally thought to be the most reliable and effective way of demonstrating that one variable causes another to change – that it has an effect on another, for example to demonstrate that alcohol causes reaction times to slow down.<br />In psychology we talk about these variables as the independent (IV) and dependent variables (DV). <br />IV = <br />DV = <br />Extraneous variables are…variables you couldn’t control that may bear an effect on the behaviour of the subject being studied…………………………………………………………………<br />…………………………………………………………………………………………………..<br />Confounding variables are.…unforeseen and therefore unaccounted for variable that affect the behaviour that affects reliability and validity of an experiments outcome.……..…………………………………………………………<br />…………………………………………………………………………………………………..<br />How can extraneous variables be controlled?<br />445770036830<br />Use the course guide to find the IV and DV in one of Loftus’ experiments into eyewitness testimony.<br />Study: <br />IV = <br />DV = <br />4572000-457200Identify the IV and DV for the following:<br />1. Severe punishment causes anxiety. <br />IV - <br />DV – <br />Directional or non-directional – <br />2. There is a difference in the ability of grey and white rats in learning to run a maze.<br />IV - <br />DV - <br />Directional or non-directional – <br />3. People are more likely to make a risky decision when they are in a group than when they are alone.<br />IV - <br />DV - <br />Directional or non-directional – <br />4. Watching violent television is likely to give children nightmares.<br />IV - <br />DV - <br />Directional or non-directional – <br />5. First children learn to speak earlier than second and subsequent children.<br />IV - <br />DV - <br />Directional or non-directional – <br />6. Absence makes the heart grow fonder<br />IV - <br />DV - <br />Directional or non-directional – <br />7. Stressful experiences increase the likelihood of headaches.<br />IV - <br />DV - <br />Directional or non-directional – <br />8. A baby under 9 months of age will not search for a hidden object.<br />IV - <br />DV - <br />Directional or non-directional – <br />9. Social class affects IQ scores.<br />IV - <br />DV - <br />Directional or non-directional – <br />10. Men drive faster than women.<br />IV - <br />DV - <br />Directional or non-directional – <br />11. Bulls will charge more often when presented with a red rag than a blue rag.<br />IV - <br />DV - <br />Directional or non-directional – <br />Operationalising the variables<br />What does this mean?<br />Go back and pick 2 of the IV/DV examples above and operationalise the variables. <br />You are expected to be familiar with the main research methods used in psychology. This includes being able to describe each method, knowing how it differs from the other methods and when each should be used.<br />You need to know at least two advantages and two disadvantages of each method.<br />MethodDescription/useAdvantagesDisadvantagesEthical issuesExample/well known studyLaboratory ExperimentField ExperimentNaturalistic ExperimentNaturalistic ObservationQuestionnaireInterviewCase studyAn in depth description/observation & analysis of one person or situation (qualitative data)Produces rich, detailed dataCan study a topic it may be unethical/impossible to study via an experimentPermits study over time.Results cannot be generalisedNo control over extraneous variablesResearcher bias may be a problem.<br />Quasi-Experiments<br />What is a Quasi-experiment? Give an example.<br />114300130810<br />Notes: <br />Questions<br />Answer these questions about each of these stimulus examples.<br />What is the research method that has been used in this study?<br />Explain one advantage and one weakness of this method in the context of this study.<br />Identify one ethical issue that might arise in this study and suggest how you would deal with it.<br />A study was conducted to investigate the effects of anxiety on performance. Participants were given a task to complete in a set time. One set of the Ps was mildly stressed during the task. This was achieved by arranging for the researcher to watch their performance closely. The other set of Ps were watched but in a friendly manner.<br />Research method:<br />Advantage:<br />Disadvantage:<br />Ethical issue:<br />A group of psychology students were studying social influence. As part of their studies they decided to investigate the extent to which drivers complied to the rules of the road. To do this they stood near a pedestrian crossing and noted how often drivers stopped when a pedestrian stood by the crossing waiting to cross.<br />Research method:<br />Advantage:<br />Disadvantage:<br />Ethical issue:<br />(From Cardwell M & Flanagan C (2003) Psychology AS The Complete Companion. Nelson Thornes). <br />4572000-457200Non-experimental research methods<br />Surveys<br />-57150016510Interviews and questionnaires are both ways of collecting data using a survey. The questions asked may be the same in both, but an interview is a face to face (spoken) encounter between P and researcher whereas a questionnaire requires a written response.<br />Questionnaires<br />When might a questionnaire be used?<br />What are the features of a structured (fixed choice) questionnaire? Give an example question.<br />5029200213995What are the features of an unstructured (open-ended) questionnaire? Give an example question<br />Give the advantages and disadvantages of each?<br />Interviews<br />What advantages and disadvantages do interviews have compared with questionnaires?<br />Observations<br />When planning an observation a researcher needs to operationally define key terms (ie. make clear statements about how to measure or classify whatever is being studied). For example, if a researcher wants to investigate age or sex differences in ‘reckless’ behaviour in the way children and young people cross the road they first need to operationally define ‘reckless’ behaviour. This means drawing up a list of criteria about what ‘reckless’ behaviour actually is.<br />To do this you might conduct a pilot study observing how young people behave as they cross the road, then discuss as a group what you have observed and come to a collective decision about what ten criteria make up ‘reckless’ behaviour.<br />What are:<br />-800100116205Naturalistic observations?<br />Controlled observations?<br />Participant observations?<br />Disclosed observations?<br />Undisclosed observations?<br />What is observer bias?<br />How can reliability be maximised when an observation is conducted?<br />What ethical issues arise when devising a naturalistic observation?<br />Conducting an observation – putting your knowledge of research methods into practice<br />Observing pedestrian behaviour<br />5600700146050-800100146050<br />Collet & Marsh (1981) looked at the way adult pedestrians avoid colliding into one another on a pedestrian crossing. They noticed the following:<br />Most pedestrians in the UK pass by on the right (Goffman, 1972 called this ‘lane formation’ or ‘pedestrian streaming’).<br />People take cues from one another, such as looking for ‘body gloss’ which is when body movement such as a slight turn of the shoulders indicates someone’s likely collision-avoidance behaviour.<br />When passing closely by another pedestrian, men tend to turn slightly towards the other person. This is ‘open passing’. Women tend to turn slightly away from the other person. This is ‘closed passing’.<br />Hypothesis: there will be a significant difference in the collision-avoidance behaviour of adults according to gender. Men are more likely to pass by using an ‘open pass’ and women are more likely to pass by using a ‘closed pass’.<br />Is this directional or non-directional?<br />Tick Sheet – observing collision-avoidance behaviour<br />Type of behaviourMale adultFemale adultTotalOpen passClosed passNeutral pass<br /> <br />Suggest one advantage and one disadvantage of this design in the context of this investigation.<br />How might you ensure reliability among different observers?<br />How could you ensure this study was carried out in an ethically acceptable manner?<br />Section 2 - Research design and implementation<br />Aims: An aim is a general statement of why the study is being carried out.<br />Hypotheses: In psychology a hypothesis is:<br />A clear statement<br />A prediction<br />Testable<br />Formulated at the beginning of the research process<br />Psychologists start with a theory which is a general idea about a behaviour and then develop a hypothesis which makes the theory testable.<br />Eg: a theory, popular in the 1960s, claimed that small amounts of information (approximately seven digits) could be held in STM store at any one time. If we rehearse material by repeating it, it is more securely stored, can be more easily passed into LTM and is therefore easier to access and recall later.<br />A development of this idea stated that simple repetition was not the most effective way of securing items in the memory store. It is more effective if ideas are chunked together and meaningful links are made. For example if Ps were asked to recall a set of words including the words ‘chocolate’ and ‘strawberry’ those who visualized a chocolate coated strawberry were morel likely to recall the words.<br />A hypothesis to test the idea might be:<br />Ps will correctly recall more words in a memory test after learning a list of words by image-linking than Ps who learn the same words via simple rehearsal.<br />With your neighbour try writing a hypothesis for the following theories:<br />537210062230<br />Students remember more information if they revise listening to Mozart than listening to Greenday.<br />Consuming alcohol affects your reactions.<br />-34290097790<br />Women drivers obey traffic laws more often than male drivers..<br />Remember: hypotheses do not:<br />Include an explanation eg. P will recall words from a list by using image-linking because…..<br />Use imprecise terms eg. Memory will be better when using visualization (what exactly is ‘better’; can you measure it?)<br />A hypothesis can be directional or non-directional. This refers to whether the hypothesis states the direction in which the results of the study will go.<br />A non-directional hypothesis (also called two-tailed) states that there will be a difference between results but not what that difference will be eg. there will be a difference between the number of words recalled from a list in a memory test between Ps asked to use repetition and Ps asked to use image-linking to remember words.<br />A directional hypothesis (also called one-tailed) states that there will be a difference between two results and predicts the difference eg. Ps who use image-linking to learn a list of words in a memory test will correctly recall a greater number of words than Ps who use repetition to learn the same words.<br />Directional or non-directional (one tailed or two tailed)?<br />2743200151130<br />Pupils studying AS Level Psychology are much happier than those studying AS Biology. D/ND<br />There will be a significant difference between the number of times male and female drivers fail to stop at a red light. D/ND<br />People who eat only brown bread score more highly on IQ tests than people who eat only white bread. D/ND<br />Ps will have a slower reaction time on a computer ‘beat-em-up’ game after consuming one unit of alcohol. D/ND<br />There will be a difference between the number of Welsh and the number of Scottish Ps rated as ‘extrovert’ on Eysenk’s personality test. D/ND<br />Students who wear designer labels and students who do not wear designer labels will show significantly different ratings on Allport’s attitude scale. D/ND<br />Year 10 students are more likely to conform to a teachers’ incorrect response in a test than Year 11 students. D/ND<br />Smokers will cough more times when asked to sit in silence, than non-smokers. D/ND<br />NB the term ‘experimental hypothesis’ should only be used when using the experimental method, otherwise the term ‘alternative hypothesis’ should be used.<br />The Null Hypothesis<br />The null hypothesis is written alongside the main hypothesis in order to make the scientific prediction complete.<br />A null hypothesis predicts that any differences or similarities between the sets of results in an experiment are due to chance alone. As psychologists, we must accept that we can never rule out the possibility that any results gained in an investigation may be simply due to chance. This possibility is tested using inferential statistics (more on this later!). Should analysis of data indicate that results are not statistically significant a researcher must reject the experimental hypothesis and accept the null hypothesis.<br />An example:<br />There will be no difference in the reaction time taken to press a button upon seeing a green square on the computer screen (measured in milliseconds) before consumption of three units of alcohol and after consumption of three units of alcohol. Any difference in results is due to chance alone.<br />1.Write a null hypothesis to match the following hypotheses:<br />Ps who learn a list of unrelated words whilst listening to classical music will recall more of the words in a memory test than Ps who learn the words in silence.<br />There will be a difference in the number of Year 12 and the number of Year 13 students who look at the answer paper of a Psychology test when the teacher leaves the room.<br />2.Operationalise and write a directional hypothesis and corresponding null hypothesis for <br />the following ideas:<br />Children are more aggressive after watching violent films.<br />I<br />Students feel more stress two days before an exam rather than on the day itself.<br />3.Write a non-directional hypothesis and null hypothesis for the following examples:<br />Children who do not form an attachment before the age of two are at risk of social delinquency<br />Ps will remember information presented visually and information presented acoustically differently.<br />For the exam you need to be able to write directional, non-directional and null hypotheses.<br />-457200-457200Research Design<br />Researchers use their participants in different ways in different experiments, depending on the situation. They weigh up the advantages and disadvantages of each design and make their decision. Use the textbook to find out about the three main methods of using participants, called designs.<br />DesignAdvantagesDisadvantagesExample studyIndependent groupsLoftus & Palmer (1974)Eg. Give one group of Ps a test in a driving simulator after having drunk alcohol and the other group without having drunk alcohol.Repeated measuresEg. Test the group on the simulator and later give them a drink of alcohol and test the same group again.Matched pairs(participants)Kagan (1980) matched nursery and home group.Eg. Ps matched in important characteristics eg. driving ability and alcohol tolerance and then tested in one condition.<br />What are order effects?<br />How can researchers reduce them? <br />What is a control group and why are they used?<br />5372100-457200Factors associated with Research<br />Fill in the table with the definitions and then answer these questions. <br />ValidityExperimental validityInternal validityEcological/ External validityReliabilityInternal:External:<br />The Psychomeasure Intelligence Test<br />468630010160<br />For only £25 (plus P & P) you can have the equipment to measure the intelligence of your friends, employees, teachers etc. Easy to use and quick to analyse the PSYCHOMEASURE offers the ideal alternative to time consuming IQ tests. All you have to do is to place the PSYCHOMEASURE around the forehead of the subject and read of the intelligence score.<br />This test has been used to show that without doubt men are generally on average much more intelligent than women!<br />Why don’t you buy one ……. Astound your friends!<br />1. Which of the following statements best describes the PSYCHOLMEASURE INTELLIGENCE TEST? Put a tick against your answer.<br />The test is reliable and valid____<br />The test is reliable but not valid____<br />The test is valid but not reliable____<br />The test is neither reliable or valid____<br />2. Describe ONE way that you could assess the reliability of the PSYCHOMEASURE test.<br />3. Describe ONE way that you could assess the validity of the PSYCHOMEASURE test.<br />3657600-685800-571500-457200The relationship between researchers and participants<br />What is meant by experimenter bias and how can it be reduced?<br />What are demand characteristics?<br />For each of the studies below say how effects of demand characteristics and experimenter bias are likely to be shown.<br />A group of students is interviewed about their belief in superstitions. The aim of the study is to see if there is a difference between males and females in the degree to which they are superstitious.<br />DC:<br />EB:<br />Teenagers in a youth club are observed to see if girls are more co-operative than boys.<br />DC:<br />EB:<br />Two teenagers carry out a study to investigate the effect of dress on helping behaviour in elderly people. One dresses as a punk, the other dresses very conventionally and smartly and they take it in turns to stop and ask people for directions. They see how closely the elderly person stands when they speak to them.<br />DC:<br />EB:<br />-571500-342900Sampling<br />When conducting research psychologists need participants. In an ideal world, a study would include all members of a target population as this would provide the most accurate results. A target population is a group of people who share the same characteristics eg. married women, A Level students, males over the age of 40 who enjoy playing golf.<br />Clearly it is impossible to include all members of the target population within a study so a section of that population, a sample is included instead. If a sample is truly representative, then psychologists should be able to generalise the conclusions of the study to the whole target population. There are several ways of obtaining a sample explain how you would obtain the following samples, say why you may choose the sampling method (i.e. what is it good for?) and :<br />5029200124460<br />A random sample<br />502920045085A systematic sample<br />501459529210<br />A self-selected sample<br />5029200155575<br />An opportunity sample<br />445770041910A stratified sample<br />You need to know which sampling method is most suitable to which circumstance/research and why.<br />The larger the sample the more likely it is that the conclusions of the investigation will reflect the behaviour of the whole target population. The size of a sample will be dictated partly by time and financial constraints, although statistical tables should be consulted to note an acceptable number of Ps in order to achieve valid, successful results.<br />5257800-457200Section 3 - Data Analysis<br />Data is the results from research. Rather than presenting all of this in its raw form in your report we use data analysis, descriptive and inferential statistics to summarise these results. This means that anybody reading the report of the study will have a concise summary of the results and conclusions can be reached.<br />Levels of measurement<br />In psychology we aim to quantify data wherever possible (NB. Even qualitative data can, to some extent be classified, categorised and counted.)<br />There are three levels at which data can be measured:<br />NOMINAL DATA – this is used when categorising something. Named categories are established by the researcher and an item is counted when it falls into this category.<br />Eg.The number of males and females in a psychology class.<br />The number of monolingual, bilingual and multilingual students in the school.<br />491490070485<br />RANKED/ORDINAL DATA – this is when data is ranked so that it is possible to see the order of scores I relation to one another.<br />Eg. In a 100m race, we would know who came first, second, third etc. <br />INTERVAL/RATIO DATA – this is a more sophisticated level of data. It not only gives the rank order of scores but it also details the precise intervals between scores.<br />-571500124460<br />Eg. In our 100m race the finishing times of runners would be interval data:<br />Clarke, N 11.4 secs<br />Smith, H 11.9 secs<br />Lloyd, P12.1 secs<br />What type of data? - Read the following and decide whether they are nominal, ordinal or interval: (write N, O or I in the box after each example)<br />The number of Ps who only read the Times, The Guardian or The Sun. <br />P’s rating of their own self-worth on a scale ranging from 1-50.<br />Fifteen photographs arranged by Ps according to level of attractiveness.<br />Results of Year 12 Psychology test (marked out of 45).<br />A set of clinical records which classify patients as ‘acute’ or ‘chronic’.<br />P’s ratings on how interesting they found a particular Psychology lesson (on a scale of 1-100 where 100 was ‘fascinating’).<br />The number of aggressive acts in a Tom and Jerry cartoon.<br />8.How could you collect nominal, ordinal and interval data when looking at IQ scores?<br />Descriptive statistics<br />Descriptive stats allow research data to be described and presented. It is not helpful to the reader to be given raw data of a study but it is important that they have a summary of that data. This may take the form of:<br />A table<br />A graph<br />Numerical average<br />Measures of central tendency<br />3657600258445MEAN – when all scores in a group are added together and the total is divided by the number of scores.<br />Eg. the results from a test (marked out of 50)<br />36 39 21 18 32 30 = 176<br />176 / 6 = 36<br />Mean = 36<br />Exercise 1<br />Find the mean of the following.<br />1.The % scores in a Sociology exam:<br />52 64 58 41<br />2.The number of library books borrowed by students in one year:<br />14 9 6 12 18 9<br />3.The amount spent on weekly shopping (£):<br />45 84 52 38 42 66<br />MEDIAN – this is the central value in a set of scores after they have been put in rank order:<br />Eg. 95 109 121 130 140 Median = 121<br />If there is an even number of scores take the mean of the two central values:<br />Eg. 95 109 121 135 140 180 <br />121 + 135 = 256 / 2 = 128<br />Exercise 2<br />Find the median values for questions 1-3 above.<br />MODE - this is the most commonly occurring value in a set of scores:<br />Eg. 1 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 7<br />Mode = 5<br />Exercise 3<br />Find the mode of the following:<br />1.The heights of the teachers at Wimbledon College:<br />5”9 5”3 5”8 6”2 5”8 5”1 6”4 5”2 5”3 5”3 5”9 5”7 5”9 5”10 5”7 6”0 5”9 5”7 5”1 5”9 5”6 5”10<br />2.The weekly pocket money given to Year 8 students (£):<br />4 6 2 5.50 3 8 4 5 4 1 7 4.50 10 4 6 3 4 2 5 7 4 7 4 3 2 8<br />3.The numbers of videos rented in one year:<br />14 15 25 12 14 18 10 0 28 25 14 18 7 4 19 14 10 30 19<br />Measures of dispersion<br />Measures of central tendency (mean/median/mode) are used to summarise sets of numbers giving a score which is representative of the set. However in order to give a fuller picture, we need to know how spread out (how dispersed) the scores are.<br />THE RANGE – this is simply the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a set of values. 1 is then added if all the numbers are whole, 0.5 is added if scores have halves, 0.1 is added if scores contain 1 decimal place, 0.01 if there are 2 decimal places etc.<br />Exercise 5<br />Find the range for the following set of scores:<br />1.Age at which Ps claim to have ‘been in love’<br />21 19 22 18 25 21<br />2.Amount spent on travel, per day (£)<br />8.5 9.5 17.5 12.5 14.5<br />3.Scores obtained in age-related reading test:<br />9.8 7.1 4.2 8.4 9.9<br />STANDARD DEVIATION – The average amount all scores deviate from the mean. This is the most powerful measure of dispersion. You will not have to work out standard deviation (hurrah!) but you need to know how it is done.<br />To calculate the standard deviation:<br />The difference (deviation) between each score and the mean of those scores is calculated and then squared (to remove minus values). <br />These squared deviations are then added up and their mean calculated to give a value known as the variance. <br />The square root of the variance gives the standard deviation of the scores.<br />ScoreMeandd26 10-4168 10-2410 100012 10+2414 10+416<br />Total 40<br />Mean of 40 = 8 (= variance)<br />Square root of variance = standard deviation = 2.8<br />Exercise 6.<br />Use the textbook to answer the following questions:<br />1.What is normal distribution? Draw an example.<br />2.What is skewed distribution? Draw an example.<br /> <br />For the exam you need to know how, why and when to use each of these methods and how to calculate them BUT you will not have to do calculations in the exam. HOWEVER the ability to work out means etc will be very useful if you are asked to describe a set of results.<br />-571500-3175Graphs<br />Graphs are used to display data in a form which is easy to read. You will be familiar with different types of graphs but it is important to know when to use each type:<br />Histograms – these use bars which touch and are used with interval data only.<br />4480560247015Bar charts – these use bars which do not touch and can be used with all types of data.<br />Pie charts – convert scores to degrees (all types of data)<br />Frequency polygrams – these use lines and are used to compare sets of scores (interval data)<br />Scattergraphs – these use dots and are used with correlations (data from one variable is plotted against the X axis and the data from another variable is plotted against the Y axis).<br />Exercise 7 <br />Produce an appropriate graph to display the following data:<br />1.Results of a study into how age affects types of play:<br />PlayAge (years)123Solitary1684Parallel397Co-operative139<br />2.Scores from Ps who were asked to rate speakers on intelligence on a scale <br />0-5 (where 5 was very intelligent) when speakers had Northern and Southern English accents.<br />RatingSouthernNorthern100256312234262152110<br />3.Results from a correlation study to see if practice on a driving test improves <br />performance:<br />240030069850<br />Number of attemptsPoints awarded127254378410551206149<br />Correlational studies (a non-experimental design)<br />Correlational studies are used to asses the strength of the relationship between variables i.e. how strong is the link between two variables such as smoking and lung cancer? In this kind of psychological study, there is no direct manipulation of the IV by the experimenter.<br />A correlation is not really a research method; it is really a tool of analysis as it makes use of statistics to test this relationship between variables. <br />Correlations are often used when it is inappropriate or ethically unacceptable to use an experimental design eg. Bowlby’s maternal Deprivation Hypothesis (1953) states that infants who fail to bond with (attach to) a primary caregiver before the age of two are more likely to show ‘delinquent behaviour’ in later life.<br />Q – What are the two linked variables here?<br />BPS guidelines would not allow an experiment to be conducted in order to test this hypothesis, as it would be highly unethical to deprive an infant of an attachment with its parents in order to further our psychological understanding. However a correlational study to test this theory would be possible.<br />Q – How?<br />Supposing we formulated the following hypothesis:<br />Ps who sleep more than 7 hours per night (on average) in one year will gain higher marks in the final A’Level exam than Ps who sleep less than 7 hours per night (on average) in one year.<br />Q – Is this a directional or non-directional hypothesis?<br />The results for this study are as follows:<br />PHours of sleep (average)Exam mark18.57325.852353546.16157.46666.97077.46586.65697.571108.979<br />The results in the table above seem quite closely related, that is where a P shows a low sleep score (average hours per night) the P also tends to have a lower exam mark.<br />4269740-342900Applying descriptive statistics<br />We can investigate the kind of correlational relationships that exist between variables by plotting points of data on a scattergraph:<br />Draw a scattergraph for the above data. <br />(On a scattergraph it does not matter which variable goes on the X axis and which on the Y axis).<br />If after a line of best fit has been drawn, the overall effect is a line moving upwards from bottom left to top right, we have a positive correlation.<br />If the overall effect is a line moving downwards from top left to bottom right, we have a negative correlation.<br />If points are scattered all over the graph, we have no correlation.<br />Q – What kind of correlation do we have for our sleep study?<br />Using textbooks write a list of the advantages and disadvantages of using a correlation.<br />AdvantagesDisadvantages <br />Activity: Complete your own correlational study: think of something you think may be related: (e.g. nose length and foot size!) present your results next lesson<br />Using inferential statistics<br />To apply inferential statistics, both sets of scores must be ordinal or interval data.<br />The strength of the link between the two variables can be assessed by calculating a correlation coefficient. This is a number between +1 and –1.<br />If the correlation coefficient is calculated to be between 0 and +1 we see a positive correlation between the two variables. If the correlation coefficient is between 0 and –1 we see a negative correlation between variables. If the correlation coefficient is 0 we see no correlation between variables.<br />In psychology a perfect correlational score of +1 or –1 is a rarity. Most scores are similar to those listed below:<br />ScorePositive/negative/no correlationStrong or weak-0.80.76-0.34-0.010.4210.566-0.210.48-0.8870.207<br />The non-parametric inferential statistical test applied to correlations is Spearman’s Rho.<br />Task<br />1.Draw a scattergraph for the following data.<br />2.Decide whether the graph shows a positive, negative or no correlation.<br />3.Estimate a correlation coefficient for this data (between +1 and –1)<br />A study investigating the relationship between children’s reading scores and mental arithmetic scores.<br />PArithmetic scoresReading scores19221033121463511569271498125911610147<br />A study investigating the relationship between the number of hours spent discussing Economics and the number of friends a P has:<br />PHours spent discussing EconomicsNumber of friends1652122339401151516847111829912210103<br />An investigation into the relationship between the number of hours spent reading Psychology Review Magazine per tem and essay scores (%).<br />PHours spent reading Psychology ReviewEssay score11062214863346412795859654479668218933510021<br />914400122555<br />RESEARCH METHODS REVISION<br />Key terms - You need to understand each of these terms in the context of a piece of research. Test yourself as you go along and for revision.<br />1.Bar chart<br />Confounding variables<br />Correlational analysis<br />Demand characteristics<br />Directional (one-tailed) hypothesis<br />DV (dependent variable)<br />Experimental/alternative hypothesis<br />Field experiment<br />Frequency polygon<br />Histogram<br />Independent groups design<br />Interview<br />Investigator effects<br />IV (independent variable)<br />Laboratory experiment<br />Matched pairs (matched participants) design<br />Mean<br />Median<br />Mode<br />Mundane realism<br />Natural experiment<br />Naturalistic observation<br />Negative correlation<br />Non-directional (two-tailed) hypothesis<br />Null hypothesis<br />Opportunity sampling<br />Pilot study<br />Positive correlation<br />Qualitative data<br />Quantitative data<br />Quasi-experiment<br />Questionnaire survey<br />Random sampling<br />Range<br />Reliability<br />Repeated measures design<br />Research<br />Scattergraph<br />Standard deviation<br />40.Validity<br />Top tips for the exam!<br />You need to know everything in this booklet because there is a real chance that any of it could come up in the exam.<br />As psychology is all about research, try and spot what method, design or sample was used in studies as you revise your other topics eg. cognitive, social etc. <br />Read these bits of advice and then have a go at the following past paper. The more papers you do the more familiar you will become with the format and the kind of questions that are asked. This is an exam paper where practice really can make perfect!<br />Read the stimulus and the questions very carefully, the examiners are not trying to trick you, even if sometimes it does seem like it. <br />In some papers you will have two 15 mark questions and in others just one worth 30 marks. Answer all questions. You do not have a choice in the research methods section.<br />Underline key terms and information in the stimulus material, for example the research method used, the sampling technique, who is doing the research etc.<br />Look at the context of the study eg. is it research for A’level coursework or is it a university Psychologist? This will affect various things eg. the budget, the resources available and the size of the sample.<br />Be reasonable about ethics particularly protection from harm.<br />Use the wording in the stimulus to help you – you will generally find key phrases for the hypothesis and aims right in front of you.<br />Practice using the exam questions in your course guide, time yourself so that you get used to working within the exam time frame.<br />center913130<br />