Qualitative research focuses on data that cannot be expressed numerically and aims to develop new concepts through description and interpretation. There are several types of qualitative research including ethnography, grounded theory, and interpretative phenomenological analysis. Data collection methods involve interviews, focus groups, observation, and reviewing documents. Qualitative analysis involves interpreting responses to uncover implied meanings and identify important themes through constant comparison of data. Constant comparison involves open coding, progressive focusing, and summarizing interpretations. Keeping organized records is also important for qualitative analysis.

1. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
DESIGN
PREPARED BY: ROBEMAR ICBAN SECTION: 8-HOOKE
MARK CALUCIN
JOSEPH DAVID CUEVAS

2. LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• To provide the reader with a basic understanding of qualitative research.
• To equip the reader with sufficient information to appreciate how qualitative research is
undertaken.
• To enable prospective researchers to consider the appropriateness of a qualitative approach
to their chosen field of investigation.
• To provide practitioners contemplating or undertaking qualitative research for the first time
with guidance on the collection, analysis and presentation of data.

3. WHAT IS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
• Focuses on how people or groups of people look at reality.
• It uses people’s account as data with no manipulation of variables.
• Focuses on data which cannot be adequately expressed numerically.
• Focuses on description and interpretation might lead to development of new
concepts.
• It is concerned with developing explanations of social phenomena.
• It is appropriate for specific subgroups of the population not the general population
because it’s limited only to a special group

4. DIFFERENT TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
1. Ethnography – it is a methodology for descriptive studies of cultures and
people.
- it helps the researchers to elucidate the situation, uncovering
practices and developing cultural awareness, and sensitivity.
Example:
A case study which involve studying a patient safety on a hospital ward,
researcher might document one patient’s stay in the ward.

5. 2. Grounded Theory – the main feature is the development of new theory
through the collection and analysis of data about a phenomenon.
Example:
A study of patient suffering from grief. The researcher will conduct interviews,
observation, and understand the knowledge of grief process and try to comfort
and help the bereaved with their loss.

6. 3. Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis – it is phenomenological,
attempting to understand how participants make sense of their experiences but
it recognizes that this involves a process of interpretation by the researcher.
Example:
Depersonalisation arises as a consequence of illness.

7. 4. Discourse Analysis – Focuses on text and talk as social practices
Example:
A case study about different ways that people view eating chocolate.

8. 5. Conversation Analysis – involves studying the social organisation of
conversation and is concerned with establishing how that organization is
achieved.
- the researcher used detailed transcripts of tape
recordings to analyse and explore the social interaction of a certain people.

9. 6. Content Analysis – the emphasis is on counting or frequency, where
researchers would count occurrences of a word, phrase on theme.
- this approach is particularly suitable with analysing
documents such as newspaper and text.

10. 7. Narrative Analysis – this focuses on people’s narratives or stories either about
themselves or a set of events.

11. QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTION METHOD
1. Interviews – this method used by qualitative researchers involve a number
of open ended questions based on the topic areas that the researcher wants
to cover. The common types of interview is the semi-structured interview,
audio recorded, video-taped and interview conducted by e-mail.
2. Focus Groups – another way of gathering data more than 3 members which
the participants interact with each other and influence each other expressed
ideas.

12. 3. Observation – it is a technique used when data cannot be collected by all
means or those of limited value, as well as, to those data that are difficult to
validate.
4. Collection of Documented material such as letters, diaries, photographs –
these include policy documents, mission statements, annual reports, minutes of
meetings, codes of conduct, web sites, series of letters or e-mails, case notes,
and health promotion materials.

13. 5. Collection of Narrative – This kind of data is collected in the course form of
interview: that begins with a generative narrative question in which the
interviewee relate his or her account of his or her life history or a part of it.

14. QUALITATIVE SAMPLING AND SELECTION
1. Theoretical Sampling – it is directed towards making possible
generalizations.
2. Convenience Sampling – researchers select those who are available and
likely to participate, perhaps over a specific period.
3. Typical Sampling - researchers decide on the characteristics of “typical”
individuals and select the sample to fit the characteristics of typical cases in
selecting people for focus groups etc.

15. 4. Critical Case Sampling – researchers choose cases that they believe to be
especially important because of the position they hold.
5. Maximum Variation Sampling – researchers identify cases with different
characteristics to maximize diversity in the sample, usually to get the widest
range of views possible.
6. Intensity Sampling - this is where researchers sample the same characteristics
over and over. It tends to be used in interpretive phenomenological analysis.

16. 7. Snowball Sampling - relies on referrals, one participant recruits others. This
can help researchers to capitalise on informal networks that might otherwise be
difficult to access (e.g. drug users, victims of domestic violence etc.)

17. QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
• It involves summarising the mass of data collected and presenting the results
in a way that communicates the most important features.
• Involves summarising the frequencies of variables, differences between
variables, and statistical tests designed to estimate the statistical significance
of the results.

18. DIFFERENT PROCEDURES TO QUALITATIVE
ANALYSIS
1. Keeping Records and being organised
• It is very important to be organised when keeping records of data or reflexive
notes or memos, or documents.
• It is also important to ensure that any saved records are kept in accordance
with data protection regulations.
2. Transcribing Qualitative Data
• It is the full script of the interview or the conversation.

19. 3. Doing Constant Comparison
• Constant comparison is an approach based on grounded theory. It allows
researchers to identify the themes that are important (i.e. important in
answering the research question) in a systematic way, providing an audit trail
as they proceed.

20. THE STAGES INVOLVED IN CONSTANT COMPARISON
1. Open coding: The first few (4 or 5) transcripts are read in detail by team members
who familiarise themselves with their content and then “open-code” them.
2. Progressive focussing: The large number of open codes thus generated by
individuals are discussed as a team, and progressively focussed (grouped) into
broader categories which reflect the issues that interviewees say are important to
them, or ideas that help to structure and explain the way that interviewees
describe their views and experiences.
3. Summarising and interpreting the findings: Researchers will look at relationships
among the ways themes co-occur within participants’ accounts, or look for patterns
in the types of concerns raised by those with particular roles, and gather together
insights which may contribute most effectively to the research focus.

21. SUMMARY
Qualitative Research
• Focuses on data which cannot be adequately expressed numerically.
• Focuses on description and interpretation might lead to development of new
concepts.
Different types of Qualitative Research
1. Ethnography 6. Content Analysis
2. Grounded Theory 7. Narrative Analysis
3. Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis
4. Discourse Analysis
5. Conversation Analysis

22. Qualitative data collection method
1. Interviews 6. Snowball Sampling
2. Focus Groups
3. Critical Case Sampling
4. Maximum Variation Sampling
5. Intensity Sampling

23. QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
• The higher level of analysis is interpretative: it is concerned with what was
meant by the response, what was inferred or implied. It is sometimes called
the latent level of analysis.
• In qualitative research we are also interested in discovering the big picture
but use different techniques to find it.

24. KEEPING RECORDS AND BEING ORGANISED
• Whatever qualitative approach is involved, it is very important to be organised
when keeping records of data or reflexive notes or memos, or documents.

25. DOING CONSTANT COMPARISON
• Constant comparison is an approach based on grounded theory. It allows
researchers to identify the themes that are important (i.e. important in
answering the research question) in a systematic way, providing an audit trail
as they proceed.

26. THE STAGES INVOLVED IN CONSTANT COMPARISON
1. Open coding
2. Progressive focussing
3. Summarising and interpreting the findings

27. REFERENCE
Hancock, Beverly, Ockleford, Elizabeth, and Windridge, Kate. (2009). An
Introduction to Qualitative Research. The NIHR Research Design Service for Yorkshire &
the Humber. Retrieved November 15, 2014, from: http://www.rds-yh.nihr.ac.uk/wp-content/
uploads/2013/05/5_Introduction-to-qualitative-research-2009.pdf