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People and Organization
This document summarizes the development of the human relations movement from the 1920s to the 1940s. It began with empirical research on group dynamics and interactions that challenged views of isolated individuals in organizations. Notable researchers included Follett, Lindeman, Moreno and Lewin who developed new techniques like sociometry and field theory to study groups. Their work influenced later studies of social systems and organizational theory. In the 1930s-1940s, human relations research expanded and many new academic centers and programs were established to study work motivation and developing participative approaches to management through techniques like role playing and sensitivity training.
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People and Organization
- 1. focuses on thegrowth and refinement of the human relations movement micro phase empirical research that led to substantial modifications in previously held views about people in organization macro phase theoretical construct of social systems analysis, precursory step for development in organization theory Introduction Gestalt as basic premise multiplier effect of organization 1921, National conference by The Federal Council of The Churches of Christ in America meaning of Christianity for human relationship with special attention to industry (and to) effectively stimulate group thinking topic develop means to observe and categorize group interactions, measure participation and classify the attitudes of various group members The Inquiry Eduard Lindeman, one of the leader of The Inquiry use Mary Follet's notions of group-conflict, integration and power-with role of an observer planted inside a group to corroborate the findings of an outside observer participant observer 1933, terminated because of financial difficulties groups could be studied through the application of quantitative methods that probed the evolution and patterning of attitudes and interactions mutual preferences were dynamic, as members of the group changed and as problems facing the group changed concept keyword : change providing methods for studying and changing a person's or group's behavior vis-a-vis other person or group attraction classification of basic attitudes repulsion indifference a process of classification, calculated to bring individuals together who are capable of harmonious interpersonal relationship and so create a social group which can function at the maximum efficiency and with a minimum of disruptive tendencies and process sociometry as analysis technique Jacob L. Moreno mapped the pairings and rankings of the individuals preferences for other individual sociogram as resulting chart in industry : to form group work placing a person "on stage" to act out his deepest psychic problems with the aid of other actors and a therapist techniques and tools psychodrama cathartic experience enabling individuals to release and relieve their innermost doubts, anxieties and other disorders Developing construct for group analysis focused on the group as the method of analysis based on assumption that the contrived group was already organized by a set of previously held social and cultural roles sociodrama cathartis and therapy were oriented toward understanding social and cultural roles basis for role playing and analysis of interpersonal relation psychology and psychoanalysis concerned with isolated individual, inadequate for analyzing group behavior group dynamics group behavior was an intricate set of symbolic interactions and forces that not only affected group structure but also modified individual behavior field theory a group was never at a steady state of equilibrium as in a continuous process of mutual adaptation quasy-stationary equilibrium keyword : change behavior as function of the person and the environment or field concept Kurt Lewin authoritarian behavior impaired initative and bred hostility and aggresiveness authoritarian vs democratic leadership democratic and lassez-faire behavior effective in creating better morale and attitudes change were more easily induced through group participation and discussion than lectures and individual methods 1. unfreezing the present level behavior as step procedure 2. moving to the new level 3. freezing group life on the new level foundation for future action research and organizational change and development technique 1945, foundedResearch Center for Group Dynamics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology 1947, established first sensitivity training or human relations laboratory : The National Training Laboratory People at Work : The Micro View Dr. Leland P. Bradford to achieve changes in behavior through gut level interactions that led to increased interpersonal awareness goal Lindeman, Morena and Lewin brought a new focus to the group rather than the individual reflecting Gestalt psychology, led to further studies of social change, social control, collective behavior and in general, the effects of the group on the individual research moved from the static state of the individual in isolation to the dynamic state of the individual interaction with others more favorable political climate for organized labor, 1930s recognition of the role of the worker of industry background National Labor Relation Act 1935 formation of CIO brought a new emphasis to collective bargaining better environment for the reapprochment between labor and management would ensure industrial peace through worker participation Morris Cooke concepts tapping labor brain for ideas on how to achieve higher productivity industrial democracy application of human relations in industrial setting business Lenny Martini - 29006014 interdisciplinary Part III The Social Person Era- Ch. 15 anthropology goal sociometry group dynamics participation in decision making micro level leadership 1945 The Yale Labor-Management Center and the Institute of Labor and Industrial Relations at the University of Illinois 2 phase of people and organization facet Institute for Social research at the University of Michigan 1946 macro level The growth of Human Relations Research and Training Summary increasing emphasis on the social, group-belonging needs of people goal : advancing the state of knowledge in personnel and industrial relations oriented toward overcoming barriers to communication and enhancing interpersonal skills Human Relations training become popular changing concept of management by Rensis Likert academians, labor leaders Industrial Relations Research Associations 1947 enlarge jobs to decrease side effects of overspecialization of labor decline on the hierarchy of authority and call for participative management characterize the new style of interdisciplinary behavioral research The New York State School of Industrial and Labor Relations at Cornell motivation analytical tools and conceptual models to explain interactions of formal and informal aspect of organization sociology 1943, Committee on Human Relations in Industry increasing recognition of the informal side of the organization and the role of worker sentiments and informal activities. role playing pathway to opening hidden talents in leader resided in group-oriented techniques study of interaction of the formal and informal organization nondirective counseling group discussion methods sensitivity training status or relative prestige of a job in the jobholder's eyes or in the regard of others a way of controlling through leadership rather than force those who initiated work for others were traditionally held to be in a higher status understanding the nature and functioning of the social system developing teamwork through incentives that fostered collaboration rather than conflict the use of knowledge of social science to improve performance as well as human relations by a way of group discipline through social pressure concept permitting the group to jell on the ideas it think will best solve a problem William Foote Whyte " group decision making by Norman Maier participatory action research determine how the company and the union were bound together in an intricate social system a way of giving each person a chance to participate in things that concern him in his work situation a method that requires skill and a respect for other people The search for fusion concept new role of supervisor in role playing and cases the functional specifications or the organization's definitions of jobs and departmental relations training to secure teamwork and develop sensitive leaders led to a plethora of texts as managerial and employee education reached a new high in management history E. Wight Bakke 5 major element of bonds of organization the reward and penalty system, provide incentives and controls in order to achieve organizational objectives scientific management movement by engineers and human relations by behavioral scientist the organization charter bond, included all those elements that contributed to giving the organization a character or a quality of entity management was decision making background a different interpretation of human motivation changing notions about the benefits of division of labor investigations in the past-Hawthorne era obtaining greater employee commitment to organizational goals through participation in decision making Administrative Behavior all administrative activity was group activity basic concept of motivation substituted administrative man for economic man allocation of resources by internal firm decision making rather than the market of classical economic theory human beings have certain needs that they try to satisfy administrative man oral phase of needs Sigmund Freud the environment that bounds the area of rationality of the person making the decision anal genital People and Organization individuals were limited in their ability to grasp the present and anticipate the future and these limits to rationality made it difficult to achieve maximizing decisions consult the group, discuss various alternatives in decision case problem for training in human relations skill were growing in use in industrial and business school education status-system bond, placed people in a vertical hierarchy of authority and deference with respect to direction a communication system, accomplished the transmission of essential information pooled thinking cooperative problem solving a contribution to the analysis of the interaction of the work system with the social system in an effort to reduce the interpersonal friction Henry Murray, 1938 bounded rationality postulated 20 different needs that people attempt to satisfy concept good enough or satisficing decisions were the result composite decision determine behavior over some stretch of time strategy the product of stored knowledge and the problem solving by recognition it permits intuition, judgement and creativity are basically expressions of capabilities for recognition and response based upon experience and knowledge Herbert A. Simon (1916-2001) intuition People at Work : The Macro View Abraham H. Maslow limited choices authority C. Barnard inducement hierarchy of needs influenced by communication strategic factors cumulative responsibility humanistic psychology human choices with respect to organizational inducements new focus of motivational effort Organization (with James March ) Mayo thesis establishment of an effective and meaningful equilibrium between the freedom of individuals and the necessity of the organization environmental factors Joseph N. Scanlon union-management productivity plan external system The Human Group work flow bonuses for tangible savings in labor cost suggestion plan and production committees that sought methods and means to reduce labor costs concepts group reward outside the group element within the groups management by competent, mentally healthy, self-actualizing individuals social aspects of the workplace and on the group industry must promote collaboration and social solidarity People and motivation policies job descriptions eupsychian = moving toward psychological health wrote Eupsychian Management new tools for macro analysis studying the distribution and allocation of decision-making function comprehend the influences of human behavior internal system activities interactions cooperation and collaboration were stressed over competition and everyone benefited from the suggestions of any one individual The Scanlon Plan George C. Homans Adamson Company implementation dimensions of group behavior La Pointe Steel Company sentiments, intangible elusive concept group reward for suggestions provide building block for further development in organization theory Pareto psychology should not limiting the field to the evil and ugly but expanding our human understanding Mary Parker Follett L. J Henderson & Vilfredo Pareto unique influenced by voluntaristic theory of social action joint committees for discussion and proposing laborsaving techniques worker sharing in reduced costs not increased profit wrote Incentive Management concept in group people were giving up freedom for security, declining pride in wok, self-reliance, and other virtues Max Weber Chester Barnard Vilfredo Pareto intelligent selfishness or individual ambition Talcott Parsons influenced by people were not primarily motivated by money, nor by security but by recognition for their skill concepts Alfred Marshall individuals are responsible for product quality and quantity of output Emile Durkheim individuals are responsible for product quality and quantity of output self management/ empowerment is individual responsibility James F. Lincoln individual incentive plan develop employees to their highest ability and then reward them with a bonus for their contribution to the success of the company goal no stoppages the plan no labor turnover result higher individual productivity rise in dividends per share declining production prices background 1776 : Adam Smith's warning of impact of division of labor combine the jobs or two or more machine operators into one job 1944, job enlargement at International Business Machines Corporation Changing assumption about people at work higher product quality less idle time for workers and machines Job enlargement result of job enlargement enriched job by introducing variety and responsibility relieve monotony enhance skill level increase the workers feeling of commitment to the total product Walker and Guest anonymity of assembly line workers disabled to influence the quality of the work decreased social interaction job enlargement and job rotationas a new focus in studies of industrial behavior power equalization thesis worker participation would yield a greater commitment to organizational goals and further individual and group satisfaction design work arrangements to permit the involvement of subordinates in decision makings flat organizational structure would maximize administrative decentralization James C. Worthy improved subordinate attitudes encourage individual responsibility and initiative provide outlets for individual self-expression and creativity landmark in management thought apply human relations philosophy to organizations considerable managerial freedom in decision making bottom up management William B. Given Jr. delegation of responsibility and authority free interchange of ideas at all levels corollary acceptance of the fact that managers grow by having the freedom to fail concept Participation in management to release the thinking and encourage the initiative of all those down from the bottom up push from the top was occasionally needed confine top-down management to setting policy, clarifying goals, providing training programs for subordinate participation plan participation plan The McCormick Multiple Management Plan a model for developing junior executive board used participation as a training and motivational method Charles Mc. Cormick opened communication channel for the junior managers concept involved them in decision making advantage of the junior board relieved senior board members of detailed planning and research provided for interlocking arrangement between various departments to coordinate realized the ideals of Follet's integration and Barnard's effectiveness and efficiency Kurt Lewin concept rise of proparticipation and anti-authoritarian The Authoritarian Personality T.W. Adorno relate personality structure to leadership, followership, morals, prejudiced and politics influenced by Nazism and facism developed F-Scale (Fascist Scale) instrument for analyzing leadership styles as well as followers' preferences for leaders empirical studies to determine what kinds of organizational structures and what principles and methods of leadership resulted highest productivity, least absenteeism, lowest turnover, greatest job satisfaction Rensis Likert identified 2 different leadership orientation 1. employee orientation 2. production orientation superior productivity greater group cohesiveness Leadership : combining people and production findings of Michigan studies advantages of employee orientation style higher morale less worker anxiety lower worker turnover shifting from a close, production-oriented style to a looser, employee-centered, supportive style situational approach to leadership investigation of Ohio State University Bureau of Business Research two dimensional view of leadership an initiating structur dimension a consideration dimension Professors Ralph M. Stogdill and Caroll L. Shartle formed the core of the research efforts in analyzing leaders and their interaction with the group relying heavily on sociometric techniques, the researcher explored member's perceptions of the organization, status, measures of group performance, characteristics of groups, and effective leader behavior in various group situations one dimension was a production oriented, initiating structure (task-oriented) axis 2 x 2 matrix of leader behavior other dimension was an employee-oriented, consideration(interpersonal relations-oriented) axis 2 dimensions did not mutually exclusive 15- People and Organization - Lenny 29006014.mmap - 02/11/2006 -