1. Dr. Carolina Matos
Lecturer in Media and Communications
Department of Sociology
City University London
WK 8 – The invention of the
independent TV production sector

2. Core readings
Essential reading
Chalaby, J. (2010) ‘The rise of Britain’s super-indies: Policy-making in
the age of the global media market’, the International Communication
Gazette, 72(8): 675-693.
Doyle, G. And R. Paterson (2008) ‘Public Policy and Independent
Television Production In the U.K.’, Journal of Media Business Studies,
5(3): 17-33. (Web link on moodle and article free to download from the
journal’s website.)
Highly recommended reading
Crisell, A. (1997) An Introductory History of British Broadcasting.
Routledge. Chapter 9.
Curran, J. and J. Seaton (2010) Power Without Responsibility - 7th
Edition. Routledge. Chapter 13.
Potter, I. (2008) The Rise and Rise of the Independents: A Television
History. London.

3. Key issues
The cosy duopoly challenged
The public versus the private
The launch of C4 and PSB
The birth of the independence TV production sector
The shift towards content producers
The rise of the super-indies
Early and contemporary TV formats and examples
Audience research and TV ratings
Conclusions and seminar topics
Readings for week 9

4.  The cosy duopoly
Limited competition between the BBC and ITV
Convergence of programming between the BBC and ITV
 The changing face of broadcasting in the 1980s and 1990s
Factors of change:
1. Technology (cable, satellite & internet)
2. Policy decisions
The four “Cs”
Commercialisation
Competition
Choice (which channel to watch, how to watch it, etc.)
Complexity
The cosy duopoly challenged

5. ‘Private’ versus ‘public’ dichotomy
Private Public
Right/Conservative/Centre/Left – the
consumer
Centre/Left/Liberal/some conservatives -
citizen
‘Objective’ and informational journalism ‘Objective’/’public’/’serious’ journalism
Talk shows/sit-coms/reality TV – American
programming, some content from other
countries
Realism in films/documentaries/reality TV –
‘arty’ and European programming, some US
material
Advertising/aesthetic of consumerism –
self/intimacy/the private sphere (i.e. Sci-fi,
horror)
‘Quality’ aesthetic/Challenging material -
collective/the public sphere
Dreamy/fantasy/’escapism’ texts – occasional
‘serious’ material
Historical material/in depth analyses – some
entertainment (i.e. Soaps, drama, sci-fi,
horror).

6. The launch of Channel Four
Launching UK’s 4th
channel:
- Ten years of debates, arguments and lobbying
- ITV certain it had its 2nd
channel
- Thatcher government (1979-90) decided otherwise
On air: 2 November 1982
Three characteristics:
1. Minority programming
(The Annan Committee, 1977)
2. A hybrid commercial/PSB channel
3. A ‘publisher’, not a ‘producer’ of
programmes

7. 30 years of Channel 4:1982- 2012
* The setting up of C4 was an important first step in fostering the
development of the independent television production sector (Doyle et
al, 2008)
* It had no in-house capacity of its own
* In sum, Channel 4 was asked by an Act of Parliament “to encourage
innovation and experiment in the form and content of programmes, to cater
for interests not catered for by ITV, to provide overall a distinctive service,
and to take as many programmes as we could from new, independent
producers.”

8. 30 years of Channel 4:
Living it up to its public service remit
Breaking and nurturing new talent
C4 has often showcased new comedians, given new writers their first
commissions and taken risk on unknown actors and presenters.
Examples:
- Davina (Big Brother)
- Jamie Oliver
- Russell Brand
- Dermot O’Leary
- Vernon Kay
- Jack Whitehall

9. 30 years of Channel 4:
Living it up to its public service remit
Innovation
C4 has often scheduled programmes that innovated and
experimented.
Examples:
- Big Brother (2000-10)
In terms of genre (reality TV) and multi-platform
programme
- Embarrassing Bodies: Live From the Clinic (2011)
Delivers healthcare to patients via Skype
- Misfits (2009)
Keeps its young audience engaged with Twitter
-The Million Pound Drop (2009)
Took the gameshow genre and made it a live event

10. Big Brother UK 2000-2010
(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2Ct8qENC-0A )

11. 30 years of Channel 4:
Living it up to its public service remit
Alternative points of view
C4 has often provided a platform for minority voices.
Examples:
- The Undateables (2012) (http://
www.channel4.com/programmes/the-undateables)
Individuals with Asperger’s, Tourette’s and narcolepsy look for
love through a matchmaking service
- Drugs Live: The Ecstasy Trial (2012)
Investigating the impact of class-A drug MDMA on the human
body
- My transsexual summer (2011)
Programme about seven people preparing gender-reassignment
procedures
-Paralympics coverage (2012)
A global event taken to a new level

12. 30 years of Channel 4:
A success story?
C4 operates in an increasingly competitive environment and it struggles to
maintain its ratings.
However:
- It has remained a creative force in the UK, helping create a
phenomenal amount of economic value over the past 30 years.
- The history of C4 is in effect the history of the independent TV and film
production sector in the UK, and the relationship between the two
remains symbiotic.
- C4 plays a pioneering role in independent British film production
through Film 4, which includes the Film 4 channel
(http://www.film4.com/), Film 4 Productions, Film4.com, Film 4OD
and Film 4.0.

13. Film 4 and independent British film
 (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jSfXh8IJEg4)
 Film4 has been involved in a range of critically acclaimed films
including Kevin Macdonald'sLast King of Scotland, Danny
Boyle's Slumdog Millionaire, Martin McDonagh's In Bruges, Phyllida
Lloyd'sThe Iron Lady, Steve McQueen's Hunger, Mike Leigh's Another
Year, Andrea Arnold's Wuthering Heights, Joe Cornish's Attack the
Block, Paddy Considine's Tyrannosaur, Ben Wheatley's Kill List, Ben
Palmer's The Inbetweeners Movie and Carol Morley's Dreams of a
Life, among others.

14. The birth of the Independent TV production
sector
1980s and 1990s:
- Production companies not owned by broadcasters.
- Collectively known as the ‘indies’.
- Small companies
- Mostly supplying Channel 4, and mostly producing
documentaries
- But it was about to change...

15. The Strategic Shift Towards Content
Producers
The 1990 Broadcasting Act introduced ‘the statutory
independent quota’
 The 1996 Broadcasting Act expanded the principle to digital
terrestrial television channels.
New Labour: elected in May 199, prime minister Tony Blair)
PACT
Rise in the competitive environment in programme-making and
boost to the independent production sector

16.  The 2003 Communications Act:
Code of Practice (between broadcasters and producers)
Defining new terms of trade
Imposing the disaggregation of rights, including distribution rights,
international rights and ancillary rights
Creating a new intellectual property (IP) regime
The Strategic Shift Towards Content Producers

17. Consolidation: The Rise of Britain’s Super-Indies
 As Chalaby (2010) states, traditionally it is vertically integrated
broadcasters who have been Britain’s top exporters.
 “The BBC has been Europe’s leading programme exporter and the world’s
third largest format originating company. ITV….is another strong
performer in the international TV market, its large catalogue of well-known
dramas and entertainment shows stretching over five decades…”
 A few British series have had success in Europe, including The Avengers,
Absolutely Fabulous, Dr. Who and The Office.
 Soon they were joined by the “super-indies”, including All3Media, Shine
Group, IMG Media and Endemol UK
 I.e. All3Media’s export catalogue spans most genres, and is strong in
drama (i.e. Hollyoaks, Midsomer Murders)
 Larger independent TV production companies, bring several small
companies under one roof.

18. The emergence of TV formats
 A TV format is the structure of a show that can generate a distinctive
narrative and is licensed outside its country of origin in order to be adapted
to local audiences
 Proof of concept (ratings) and flying producers
 Early British TV formats:
 Changing Rooms
 Ready Steady Cook
 Robot Wars
 Scrapheap Challenge
 Faking It
 Supernanny
 Who Wants To Be a Millionaire (i.e. (https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=4fSt4mBfRPU)
 Wife Swap

19. Contemporary British TV formats
Come Dine With Me
Dancing With the Stars
Got Talent
Idols (American Idol, etc.)
Million Pound Drop
Undercover Boss
Secret Millionaire
X Factor

20. Come Dine with Me
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LY_NoMumfEQ)

21. Britain’s Super-Indies
 All3Media
drama: Apparitions, Hollyoaks, Midsomer Murders, Skins, Wild At Heart;
factual entertainment: Bondi Rescue, Fifth Gear, The Rough Guide To…
and Victorian Farm. Formats: Cash Cab.
Shine Group
MasterChef, Merlin, The Office (USA) Ugly Betty (USA).
IMG Media
- Mr Bean, Murphy’s Law, Charlie and Lola.

22. Britain’s Super-Indies
Endemol UK
- Big Brother UK and derived shows, Gok’s Fashion Fix; Deal or
No Deal; Ready Steady Cook, Would I Lie to You?
RDF Media (now part of Zodiak Media Group)
- Wife Swap, Location, Location, Location, Don’t Forget the
Lyrics, Faking It and Secret Millionaire.

23. Britain’s Super-Indies
Tinopolis
- current affairs: Question Time; factual and entertainment:
The World’s Worst…, Traffic Cops, Drunk & Dangerous;
formats: Paradise Hotel.
Shed Media (now part of Warner Bros)
- dramas: Footballers’ Wives, Hope Springs, Waterloo Road;
formats: Supernanny, Who Do You Think You Are?, World’s
Strictest Parents.

24. British content producers: An export
industry
Hundreds of companies
Formation of a commodity chain in broadcasting
(e.g. food supply chain)
4,224 staff in total (2013)
Supply about half the programming on BBC, ITV, C4
and Five
£2.08 billion global turnover
£1.2 billion in TV exports (UK world’s 2nd
exporter in
the world behind USA)

25. How do we know how many people watch TV?
The Broadcasters’ Audience Research Board (BARB) provides official
viewing figures for UK television audiences www.barb.co.uk
Panel survey of 5,100 households representative of UK TV audience
Television viewing is monitored automatically by metering equipment
More than 30,000 viewing devices are monitored, including PVRs, DVDRs
and VCRs, and standard set-top boxes
Each morning overnight viewing figures released to TV industry
Eight days later, consolidated audience figures are released, incorporating
any timeshift viewing from the previous seven days
Socio-demographic characteristics of households captured too

26. Who does audience research?
Official organisations for commissioning audience research
Television:The Broadcasters’ Audience Research Board (BARB) www.barb.co.uk
Radio:Radio Joint Audience Research (RAJAR) www.rajar.co.uk
Newspapers: National Readership Survey (NRS) www.nrs.co.uk
Regulator: Office of Communications (OFCOM) http://www.ofcom.org.uk
There are many audience research companies
IPA Touchpoints www.ipa.co.uk/touchpoints
Kantar Media www.kantarmedia-audiences.com
IPSOS-MORI MediaCT www.ipsos-mori.com/researchspecialisms/ipsosmediact.aspx
AGBNielson www.agbnielsen.net
Many more!

27. Share of audience by
channel
http://www.barb.co.uk
/trendspotting/analysi
s/share-of-viewing-by-
channel?_s=4
% share of audience
Year to end Sep 2013
For all broadcaster groups with at least 1% share

28. Ofcom 2013 report on the media: key findings
 News consumption in the UK
 TV remains the most important and frequently-used mode of news
consumption, and one in five people say their only source of news is
television.
 Nearly 8 in ten (78%) UK adults say they use television to access news.
Newspapers by four in ten; radio by just one-third (35%); and the Internet,
either on a computer or mobile, by just one third (32%).
 TV channels are seen as the most important source, but one in seven people
nominate a website or apps as their most important news source
 TV channels are the most popular source of local news, although one in
three respondents say they browse online for local news and information.
 Across all platforms, BBC One is the most-used news source. After the
BBC, Facebook and Google are the most used online news sources.
 The UK television industry generated £ 12.3 bi in revenue during 2012, an
increase of £ 103 m (or 0.8%) on 2011 in nominal terms.

29. Conclusions and questions for thought
 C4 has paved the way for the independent TV production sector
 It catered for minorities, and launched creative talent, such as Russell
Brand
 The UK’ regulation policy has had a fundamental role in helping shape
the broadcasting sector and stimulate competition, opening spaces for
new voices and diversity of perspectives
 The ‘super-indies’ have contributed to boost the competitive edge of
programme-making in the UK
 Some successful TV formats include Big Brother, Come Dine With Me,
Who Wants to be a Millionaire, etc.
 What have been some of the problems of the independent TV
production sector?
 Class topic: Analysis of last week’s ratings (terrestrial television).

30. Readings for week 9
Essential reading
Crisell, A. (1997) An Introductory History of British Broadcasting.
Routledge. Chapters 10 & 11.
OR
Curran, J. and J. Seaton (2010) Power Without Responsibility - 7th
Edition. Routledge. Chapters 14 & 16.
Highly recommended reading
Horsman, M. (1997) Sky High – The amazing story of BSkyB. Orion
Business.
Additional:
Hutchison, D. (1999) Media Policy: An Introduction. Blackwell.
Chapter 10.