Sodium is necessary for the body to maintain fluid balance and is critical for normal body function. It also helps to regulate nerve function and muscle contraction.
Hyponatremia and Hyponatremia.
Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion (SIADH)silla elsa soji
SIADH is a disorder of impaired water excretion caused by the inability to suppress the secretion of antidiuretic hormone (ADH). Inappropriate, continued secretion or action of ADH despite normal or increased plasma volume. Results in impaired water excretion, and subsequently hyponatremia and hypo-osmolality.
Sodium is necessary for the body to maintain fluid balance and is critical for normal body function. It also helps to regulate nerve function and muscle contraction.
Hyponatremia and Hyponatremia.
Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion (SIADH)silla elsa soji
SIADH is a disorder of impaired water excretion caused by the inability to suppress the secretion of antidiuretic hormone (ADH). Inappropriate, continued secretion or action of ADH despite normal or increased plasma volume. Results in impaired water excretion, and subsequently hyponatremia and hypo-osmolality.
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This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
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The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
2. INTRODUCTION
ANATOMY OF BODY FLUIDS AND ELECTROLYTE COMPOSITION.
• Fluid physiology varies with age, sex and lean body mass.
• Total body water= about 55% in females and 60% in males.
3. Average fluid intake and output of a healthy
adult.
Intake volume Output volume
Water from beverage
(exogenous)
1200ml Urine 1500ml
Water from food
(exogenous)
1000ml Insensible losses (lungs
and skin)
900ml
Water from oxidation
(endogenous)
300ml Faeces 100ml
4. Distribution of electrolytes .
ECF:
• Major cation- sodium.
• Major anion- chloride.
ICF:
• Major cation- potassium.
• Major anions-phosphate, sulfate,
proteins.
5. Classification of body fluid changes
• Disturbances in fluid volume.
• Disturbances in concentration and composition
6. 1. Volume balance disturbance (dehydration)
• Extracellular volume deficit is most common.
• Causes:
Isotonic water loss- diarrhoea, vomiting, and excess diuresis.
• Features - dry tongue, rapid pulse, collapsed neck veins,cold
clammy extremities, sunken eyes, hypotension, oliguria, raised
blood urea, decreased urinary sodium.
Pure water loss- poor fluid intake, diabetes insipidus.
• Features —severe thirst, confusion and convulsions due to
hypernatraemia; blood pressure is relatively normal.
7. Management
• Evaluation is done by doing serum sodium, urinary sodium, and blood
urea.
• Isotonic volume depletion is corrected by 0.9% normal saline.
• Pure water depletion is corrected by more water intake/ intravenous
5% dextrose.
• Monitoring fluid therapy by skin and tongue examination, weight
gain, pulse, blood pressure, CVP.
8. Volume balance disturbance (volume excess)
Can be:
• Water and salt excess -CCF, cirrhosis, nephrotic syndrome,
hypoproteinaemia, renal failure, excessive saline infusion.
• Water intoxication-TURP, excess infusion of 5% dextrose only, SIADH
secretion, psychogenic polydypsia.
Features : Drowsiness, weakness, convulsions and coma, tachycardia,
pulmonary edema, hypertension, bilateral basal crackles, ascites,
nausea, vomiting, gain in body weight, passage of dilute urine, pedal
edema
9. Management
• Investigations- Haematocrit , UECs- low sodium level, low potassium,
low blood urea.
• Treatment
• Water and salt restriction and observation.
• Monitoring in ICU.
• Infusion of hypotonic sodium chloride.
• NB: Administration of diuretics and hypertonic saline should be
avoided- may cause neuronal demyelination
12. Management
• Investigations: UECs, urinary sodium.
• Treatment
• Intravenous infusion of normal saline as a slow and gradual
correction at a rate of 2 mEq/L/hour in acute cases and 0.5
mEq/L/hour in chronic cases.
• Correction should not exceed more than 20 mEq/L/day in acute
cases and more than 10 mEq/L/day in chronic cases.
• Hypertonic saline of 1.6% or 3% also can be used in severe cases.
• Treat the cause
13. Hypernatremia
Serum sodium concentration above 145mmol./L
• Causes
• Euvolemic - failure of water intake, high fever, diabetes insipidus,
chronic renal failure.
• Hypovolaemic- vomiting, diarrhoea, excess sweating, osmotic
diuresis by glucose/ mannitol.
• Hypervolaemic - more salt intake, excess steroids, sodium
bicarbonate/hypertonic saline infusion.
Features:
restlessness, lethargy, ataxia, irritability, tonic spasms, delirium,
seizures, coma, weakness, tachycardia, hypotension, syncope, dry,
sticky mucous membranes, decreased saliva and tears.
14. Management
• Treat the associated water deficit.
• In hypovolemic patients, volume should be first restored with normal
saline then concentration abnormality.
• The water deficit is replaced using a hypotonic fluid such as 5%
dextrose in one quarter normal saline.
16. Management of hyperkalemia
1. Reducing the total body potassium
• reduce intake.
• decrease absorption in the gut, by using a cation-exchange resin eg
Kayexalate.
• increase loss in urine e.g. loop diuretics.
2. Shifting potassium from the extracellular to the intracellular space
using glucose and insulin.
3. Protecting the cells from the effects of increased potassium using
calcium chloride or calcium gluconate.
18. Management of hypokalemia
• Oral potassium 2 g*6, 15 ml potassium chloride syrup (20 mmol of K).
• IV KCl 40 mmol/litre given in 5% dextrose or normal saline slowly,
often under ECG monitoring [Total dose is 40 mmol (0.2 mmol
/kg/hour). Maximum dose per hour is 20 mmol].
19. Calcium abnormalities
Normal serum calcium-8.5 to 10.5 mmol/L (normal ionized calcium-4.2
to 4.8mmol/L).
• Hypercalcemia- serum Ca > 10.5mmol/L or ionized Ca levels>
4.8mmol/L.
• Causes: primary hyperparathyroidism, malignancy.
• Signs and symptoms:
hypertension, cardiac arrhythmias, polyuria, polydipsia, weakness,
confusion, coma, bone pain, anorexia, nausea, vomiting, abdominal
pain.
20. Hypocalcemia
• Serum Ca level <8.5mmol/L or ionized Ca level < 4.2mmol/L.
• Causes: pancreatitis, necrotizing fasciitis, renal failure, pancreatic and
small bowel fistulas, hypoparathyroidism, parathyroidectomy, toxic
shock syndrome.
• Signs and symptoms: paresthesias of the face and extremities, muscle
cramps, carpopedal spasm, stridor, tetany, seizure, hyperreflexia,
decreased cardiac contractility and heart failure.
21. Management of calcium abnormalities
• Management of hypercalcemia- repleting the associated volume
deficit and then inducing diuresis with normal saline.
• Management of hypocalcemia- calcium supplementation.
23. Management
Hypomagnesemia
• 2g (16 mEq) of magnesium sulphate slow intravenously, in 10
minutes.
• Later maintenance dose of 1 mEq/kg/day as slow continuous infusion
is given/oral magnesium is needed
24. Hypermagnesemia
• Serum Mg > 1.1mmol./L.
• Causes: excess magnesium intake, total parenteral nutrition, massive
trauma, thermal injury and severe acidosis.
• Signs and symptoms:
nausea and vomiting, weakness, lethargy, decreased reflexes,
hypotension, arrest.
Rx- restrict intake
25. Phosphate abnormalities
• Normal serum phosphate levels- 1.12 to 1.45 mmol./L.
Hypophosphatemia- serum phosphate levels < 1.12 mmol./L.
• Causes malabsorption, decreased dietary intake, respiratory alkalosis,
insulin therapy.
• Symptoms can manifest as cardiac dysfunction or muscle weakness.
26. Hyperphosphatemia
Serum phosphate levels > 1.45mmol./L.
• Causes: hypoparathyroidism, hyperthyroidism, excessive
administration from IV hyperalimentation solutions or phosphorus-
containing laxatives.
• Most patients are asymptomatic. Prolonged hyperphosphatemia can
lead to metastatic deposition of soft tissue calcium-phosphorus
complexes.
27. Acid- base disorders.
• Normal pH ranges from 7.35 to 7.45.
• pH below 7.35 indicate acidosis, pH above 7.45 indicate alkalosis.
• Normal range PaCO2 of 35-45mmHg and serum concentration of
HCO3 range of 21-28 mmol./L.
29. Acid- base disorders
Respiratory acidosis
• Causes: CNS injury, pulmonary atelectasis or increased secretions,
narcotics.
• Signs and symptoms: mental cloudiness, signs of increased
intracranial pressure such as papilledema.
• Treatment: improve ventillation
30. Acid-base disorders
Metabolic acidosis
• Causes: ketoacidosis, exogenous acid ingestion, loss of bicarbonate
ions, diarrhea.
• Signs and symptoms: increased rate and depth of breathing.
• Treatment: treat underlying cause.
31. Acid base disorders
Respiratory alkalosis.
• Causes: hyperventilation, anxiety, hypoxemia, cerebral tumors.
• Signs and symptoms: loss of consciousness, tachycardia, light
headedness
• Treatment: treat the underlying cause.
32. Acid-base disorders
Metabolic alkalosis
• Causes: GIT losses due to vomiting, bicarbonate retention as in milk-
alkali syndrome, NaHCO3 administration.
• Signs and symptoms: Cheyne-Stokes respiration, apnoea, tetany
• Treatment: replacement of chloride ions.
33. FLUID AND ELECTROLYTE THERAPY
INDICATIONS
oFluid Resuscitation- to restore intravascular volume in hypovolemic
patients.
oReplacement of ongoing losses- such as in burns, and replacement of
free water deficit- in the treatment of dehydration.
oCorrection of electrolyte imbalances.
oRoutine maintenance- for patients who cannot or are not allowed to
take fluids orally following addition of 30ml/kg/h or using 4,2, 1 rule.
34. Nature and volume of fluids are determined
by:
• Assessment of vital signs-pulse, BP.
• Clinical examination- assess hydration status (skin tugor, urine
output). Investigations- urine, serum electrolytes and hematocrit.
• Estimation of losses already incurred and their nature, through
vomiting.
• Estimation of supplemental fluids for future losses from fistulae,
nasogastric tube.
• Determination of appropriate replacement fluid from consideration of
the electrolyte composition of secretions.
35. Parenteral solutions used for therapy
Crystalloids- are aqueous solutions of
mineral salts and other water soluble
molecules.
• Isotonic solutions: Plasma-Lyte,
lactated Ringer’s solution,
normal saline.
• Hypotonic solutions: 0.45%
sodium chloride, 5% dextrose.
• Hypertonic solution: 3.5%, 5%,
7.5% hypertonic saline solutions.
Colloids- contain larger insoluble
molecules.
• Natural: Albumin (5% and 25%)
• Synthetic: dextrans (dextran 40
and 70), starch (hetastarch),
gelatins (gelofusine, plasmagel,
polygeline).
37. Differences between colloid and crystalloids
Colloids
• Have large particles (1-200nm).
• Are heterogeneous solutions.
• Replaces fluid volume for
volume.
• There is risk of anaphylactic
reactions.
• Replaces mostly extracellular
fluid volume (intravascular)
Crystalloids
• Have small particles (<1nm).
• Are homogeneous solutions.
• Replaces fluid volume 3 times
the volume needed.
• Non- allergenic.
• Replaces both intracellular and
extracellular fluid volume.
39. Colloids
ALBUMIN- protein normally synthesized by the liver.
Indications:
• Hypoalbuminemic states i.e. albumin < 2.5mg/dL (e.g. following
paracentesis, liver cirrhosis)
• If crystalloid fluid resuscitation has caused significant edema.
• Acute management of severe burns
• Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (SBP).
40. Colloids
GELATIN- large molecular weight proteins formed from hydrolysis of
collagen.
Indications:
• Acute management of hemorrhagic hypovolemia
• Volume preloading before regional anesthesia
41. Colloids
ADVERSE EFFECTS OF COLLOIDS
• Anaphylaxis
• Volume overload
• Interference with blood grouping and cross matching
• Pruritus with prolonged use
• Nephrotoxicity.
42. Refeeding syndrome
• Occurrence of severe fluid and electrolyte imbalance in severely
malnourished individual while starting the proper feeding enteral or
parenteral nutrition.
• Common in chronic starvation, severe anorexia and alcoholic patients.
• Causes hypomagnesaemia, hypocalcaemia and hypophosphataemia
leading to:
• myocardial dysfunction, respiratory changes, altered liver
functions, altered level of consciousness, convulsions and often
death
43. Management
• Administer thiamine before initiation of feeding
• Gradual feeding
• Correction of magnesium, phosphate and calcium and other
electrolytes
• Monitor vitals, fluids balance and electrolytes