This document provides an overview of key concepts from chapters 5 and 6 of an introductory sociology textbook. It defines variables, attributes, hypotheses, dependent and independent variables and their relationships. It also discusses quantitative and qualitative research methods, including surveys, observations, sampling techniques, literature reviews, and ensuring ethical standards are followed.

1. Introduction to Sociology

2. Week 2: Chapter Review,

3. CHAPTER 5
Variables-
• A variable is either a result of some force or is itself the force that
causes a change in another variable. In experiments, these are called
dependent and independent variables respectively.
Attributes-
• Inferences made about the causes of other people's behavior.
Hypothesis-
• An "educated guess”.
Dependent variables-
• The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to the
manipulations of the independent variable.
Independent variables-
• The variable that is manipulated in an experiment.
Positive relations-
• Variables that vary in the same direction have a positive relationship.
Negative relations-
• Variables that vary in the opposite direction have a negative
relationship.

4. CHAPTER 5
Operational definitions-
• Observable operations, procedures, and measurements that are based
on the independent and dependent variables
Averages-
• A number expressing the central or typical value in a set of data, in
particular the mode, median, or the mean.
Mean-
• The mean is the average of the numbers.
Median-
• A value or quantity lying at the midpoint of a frequency distribution
of observed values or quantities.
Mode-
• The value that occurs most often.
Correlation vs. causation-
• A measure of association vs. cause. Just because two things are
associated
does not mean that one causes the other.

5. CHAPTER 6
Quantitative research-
• Research that collects and reports data primarily in numerical form.
Qualitative research-
• Research that is about exploring issues, understanding phenomena,
and answering questions by analyzing and making sense of
unstructured data.
Literature review-
• Surveys scholarly articles, books and other sources (e.g. dissertations,
conference proceedings) relevant to a particular issue, area of research,
or theory, providing a description, summary, and critical evaluation of
each work.
Survey-
• A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of
a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random
sample of the group.
Self-administered questionnaire-
• A set of questions given to respondents who read the instructions and
fill in the answers themselves.
Open-ended vs. close-ended questions-
• Questions + answer categories

6. CHAPTER 6
Matrix questions-
• Several questions with the same set of answers. For example: Strongly
Agree, Agree, or Strongly Disagree.
Demographics-
• The characteristics of a population with respect to age, race, and
gender.
Field research-
• The main qualitative research method and involves the study of social
life in its natural setting.
Observational research-
• The gathering of primary data by observing relevant people, actions,
and situations.
Participant observation-
• An observation procedure in which the observer participates with those
being observed. The observer becomes "one of them”.
Hawthorne effect-
• The alteration of behavior by the subjects of a study due to their
awareness of being observed.

7. CHAPTER 6
Reactive effects-
• The changes in an individual or group behavior that are due to being
observed or otherwise studied.
Accretion measures-
• The measures are deposits of something left behind (used in non-
reactive observation)
Content analysis-
• The systematic coding and objective recording of data, guided by some
rationale
Unobtrusive methods-
• Methods in which research respondents do not have to be disturbed for
data or gathered.
Artifacts-
• Object made by human beings, either hand-made or mass-produced.
Ethnography-
• The scientific description of the customs of individual peoples and
cultures.
Triangulation-
• The use of multiple methods to study one research question.

8. CHAPTER 6
Sampling-
• The process of selecting participants for a study of the population. The
sample is then considered a portion of the population that is studied in
order to make inferences about the entire population.
Heterogeneity-
• The variability of the inputs and outputs of services, which causes
services to tend to be less standardized and uniform than goods.
Convenience sample-
• A form of nonprobability sample using respondents who are convenient
or readily accessible to the researcher—for example, employees,
friends, or relatives.
Random Sample-
• A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has
an equal chance of inclusion.
Ethics-
• Standards of right and wrong that transcend economic and legal
boundaries. Ethical standards deal with the way we treat others and
restrain our own actions because of the desires, expectations, or rights
of others, or with our obligations to them.
IRB-
• A committee that reviews research proposals to ensure that ethical
standards have been met.