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![Sex in the Media
Why should we care?
Kaiser Family Fund reports that
sex is learned from:
Friends (64%)
TV or Movies (61%)
School and Teachers (44%)
Internet searches (40%)
Mothers and family (38%)
Other studies show teens learning
sexual behavior from [violent]
pornographic media
(magazines, videos)](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/weekthree-120624121655-phpapp02/75/Week-Three-Contemporary-Media-Research-6-2048.jpg)
![Sex in the Media
Why should we care?
750K (40-50 per 1000) annual US teen
pregnancies (highest in modern world); rate lower
in Germany (10 per 1000) [birth rates]
Germany and US, over 80% of teenagers have
had intercourse
In US, 1:5 chance that your partner has an STD
an estimated 10M new STD cases among 15-24
Every hour, 2 Americans under 20 are infected with
HIV
Rates much lower in Germany WHY?](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/weekthree-120624121655-phpapp02/75/Week-Three-Contemporary-Media-Research-12-2048.jpg)
![Defining Pornography
I shall not today attempt
further to define the kinds of
material I understand to be
embraced within that
shorthand description ["hard-
core pornography"]; and
perhaps I could never
succeed in intelligibly doing
so. But I know it when I see
it, and the motion picture
involved in this case is not
that.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/weekthree-120624121655-phpapp02/75/Week-Three-Contemporary-Media-Research-13-2048.jpg)
![Disinterest in Action
Disinterest likely
requires:
1. Exposure to script
2. Retention of script
What Theory Might Explain
3. Learning of script This?
4. (de)motivation to
enact script
You need 1-3 +
[what] in order to
get 4!](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/weekthree-120624121655-phpapp02/75/Week-Three-Contemporary-Media-Research-44-2048.jpg)
Week Three: Contemporary Media Research
The document explores the impact of media psychology on contemporary issues such as sexual content, violence, body image, and racial representation in media. It discusses how media influences behavior, attitudes, and societal norms, particularly among youth, drawing attention to the potential negative effects of sexual media on relationships and body image. Furthermore, it highlights differences in media portrayal of minority groups and the role of media in emotional regulation and psychological growth.
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Week Three: Contemporary Media Research
- 1. MEDIA PSYCHOLOGY AND INFLUENCE Week Three – Contemporary Media Research
- 2. PreDay: Let‟s lookat your Models Media Psychology and Influence SPICE 2012 (Erfurt) ND Bowman PhD, Instructor
- 4. Day One: TheBad Things Media Psychology and Influence SPICE 2012 (Erfurt) ND Bowman PhD, Instructor
- 5. Outline “The Bad” Sex In Media Violence in Media Body Image in Media Racism in Media
- 6. Sex in theMedia Why should we care? Kaiser Family Fund reports that sex is learned from: Friends (64%) TV or Movies (61%) School and Teachers (44%) Internet searches (40%) Mothers and family (38%) Other studies show teens learning sexual behavior from [violent] pornographic media (magazines, videos)
- 7. What sort ofSex? Lots of labels, including erotic, pornographic, X- rated and sexually explicit Big. Business. (also drives tech innovation) Distinctions made between violence and nonviolent But, nonviolence can have other effects (submission)
- 8. What sort ofSex? Importantly, it‟s not all porn and it‟s not all video Sex in literature goes back to Classics Overall, broadcast media has been far more conservative in portraying sex, even cross-culturally (WHY?) Televised representations: 56% contain some form of sex content 54% contain talk about sex 23% contain sexual behavior 6:1 ratio of affairs to married sex (as high as 24:1 in soaps) In general, trends to increased sex over time
- 9. Effects of sexualmedia Arousal effects, much greater on males What explains this? What has been found to moderate this (suppression)? The Catharsis Legend
- 10. Effects of sexualmedia Attitudinal Effects Less satisfaction with own partners More support of rape myth Viewing of “out of context” women as sexual persons Increased salience of „nasty heuristics‟ Effects not necessarily tied to explicit material
- 11. Effects of sexualmedia Behavioral Effects Learning new behaviors Disinhibiting effects What Theory Might Explain This? Enactment of sex; crimes Sexual Violence: More than sum of parts Gender (Sex?) Media Content Sexual Thoughts Context Else?
- 12. Sex in theMedia Why should we care? 750K (40-50 per 1000) annual US teen pregnancies (highest in modern world); rate lower in Germany (10 per 1000) [birth rates] Germany and US, over 80% of teenagers have had intercourse In US, 1:5 chance that your partner has an STD an estimated 10M new STD cases among 15-24 Every hour, 2 Americans under 20 are infected with HIV Rates much lower in Germany WHY?
- 13. Defining Pornography I shall not today attempt further to define the kinds of material I understand to be embraced within that shorthand description ["hard- core pornography"]; and perhaps I could never succeed in intelligibly doing so. But I know it when I see it, and the motion picture involved in this case is not that.
- 14. Sex in theMedia – They‟re affected General Public Hollywood Elite 76% feel that TV 37% feel that TV contributes to teen contributes to teen pregnancy pregnancy 84% see link to affairs 43% see link to affairs 83% link to 56% link to promiscuity promiscuity 90% link to teen sex 63% link to teen sex 84% link to violence 61% link to violence against women against women
- 15. Sex in theMedia – They‟re affected Why the disagreement? A Third Person Effect could be at play here General notion that others are affected by mass messages more than we are Davison, W. (1983). "The third-person effect in communication". Public Opinion Quarterly 47 (1): 1-15.
- 16. Violence, or Aggression? As much as we study media‟s effect on violent actions, we see fewer acts of widespread violence… …but, we might argue that aggressive thought is the media effect!
- 17. General Aggression Model What is Aggression? Evolutionary:mate selection, protection, survival As society developed, aggression becomes (became) increasingly maladaptive… …yet, may be primed from our (media) environment
- 18. General Aggression Model Main components 1. Person and Situation Inputs 2. Present Internal States 3. Outcomes qua appraisal and decision
- 19. General Aggression Model Violence influences: Short-term – aggressive thoughts primed Long-term – overall desensitization to violence; accessibility of violent scripts
- 20. Body Image andthe Media Internalization of Thin Body Ideal (Hour- Glass) Media Exposure Eating Disorders
- 21. Body Image andthe Media Harrison and Hefner (2005) argue that these mediating effects might be happening as young as pre-adolescent girls… …in fact, given few counterfactuals, effects might be stronger! Internalization of Thin Body Ideal (Hour- Glass) Media Exposure Eating Disorders Counterfactuals (real-world
- 22. Body Image andthe Media Self-Concept Age Media Exposure Thin Body Ideal Peer Pressure Maternal Pressure
- 23. Body Image andthe Media Body Images are not just in “adult” media
- 24. Body Image andthe Media Current body image, or future body image? More likely to see older “thin” women in media, so we might study “Grown Up Ideal”
- 25. Body Image andthe Media Food for Thought: How was the proposed mediator (internalization of thin body ideal) assessed in this model?
- 26. Minorities in theMass Media In mid-2011, a story on minority optimism in the face of US economic downturn received little press, angering many including Fox News‟ Juan Williams If there is a story about black poverty, police brutality or a drug-related shooting spree in a Hispanic neighborhood, the big papers will feature it with Page One coverage. Those stories fit old racial stereotypes. But when there is good news on race relations and refreshing evidence of blacks and Latinos leading the way by showing faith in America‟s future, the big media is just not that into it.
- 27. Minorities in theMass Media Greenberg and colleagues wrote on the topic in three sections: 1. Content analysis 2. Usage patterns What Perspective Does This Sound Like? 3. Observed effects
- 28. Minorities in theMass Media Real-World Demographics Prime-Time Television (2000) (2010) 76% White 72% White 18% African- 13% African- American American 2% Latino 16% Latino 2% Asian-American 5% Asian-American 0.2% Native 1% Native
- 29. Minorities in theMass Media 1. Absent 2. Comic Relief 3. Justice and Stability 4. Normal
- 30. Minorities in theMass Media Usage Patterns Overall, Blacks watch far more television than Whites Latino youth seem to „look up‟ to same-race portrayals and use targeted media; Latino elders are more negative Little research on Asian- and Native-American specific media usage FOOD FOR THOUGHT: Concerns about Cultural Proximity and political/social involvement? Effects largely rooted in Cultivation Theory
- 31. Day Two: BadContent, Good Effect Media Psychology and Influence SPICE 2012 (Erfurt) ND Bowman PhD, Instructor
- 32. Outline “spill-over from yesterday” Appreciation as Media Effect Disinterest in Media Portrayals Media as Emotional Control
- 33. Appreciation for Media Enjoyment has been a central (almost myopic) focus in entertainment research Enjoyment tends to focus on: Positive feelings Arousal (rooted in hedonism) Maximizing pleasure Distraction from reality
- 34.
- 35. Appreciation for Media Why does entertainment media have to be enjoyable? Seems short-sighted, given the plethora of motivations for media usage Enjoyment is not always adaptive Negative emotion can lead to empathy, perspective- taking, etc. Does not explain the paradox of sad film (Oliver, 1993)
- 36. Appreciation for Media Eudaimonic motivations for media consumption also exist to drive meaningfulness and insight Where do we think Eudaimonia fits in Maslow‟s Hierarchy of Needs?
- 37. Appreciation for Media HedonicHappiness Eudianomic Happiness Pleasure Self-expression Arousal Self-realization Positive feeling Personal Maximizing pleasure development Contemplation
- 38. Appreciation for Media Media can result in the satisfaction of needs that are not self-gratifications… …but in fact, more “meaning-of-life” questions Inspiration Compassion Introspection Note that hedonism and eudianomia are orthogonal, but can occur concurrently!
- 39. Appreciation for Media These data show consistent patterns that distinguish hedonism from eudianomia, but what are some limitations to this study? • Student Sample • US Sample • Trait-Based • OTHERS?
- 40.
- 41.
- 42. Disinterest in Action Do we always enact what we see on screen? No, and perhaps we are turned away from it A murder simulator ought to revile us, the more the better. If anything, trivializing death and torture through abstraction is far more troublesome What is Bogost than attenuating it through ghastly referring to here? representation.
- 43. Disinterest in Action Consider NRA Gun Club What does our game “reviewer” think of the game?
- 44. Disinterest in Action Disinterest likely requires: 1. Exposure to script 2. Retention of script What Theory Might Explain 3. Learning of script This? 4. (de)motivation to enact script You need 1-3 + [what] in order to get 4!
- 45. Gaming and Control Video games provide us with “virtual realities” … …which might provide escapes and experiences far beyond that of „traditional media‟
- 46. Gaming and Control Unlike films, video games require us to be in the perceptual (violent?) space, which might provide a different sort of perspective Video games instill a sense of: Presence (vividness + interactivity) Narrative transportation Flow
- 47. Presence A sense of “being there” Characteristics Continuum, not categorical Psychological, not technological Dynamic, not static Combination of Content Channel User
- 48. Flow Flow Understood as “being in the moment” Skills vs. Challenge – a balance Flow results in: • Clarity of goal • Concentration • Loss of awareness • Distorted sense of time • Feedback • Balance • Control • Autotelic * • absorption
- 49. Coping in videogames Consider our daily lives, which Grodal argues involve (among others): Empathy Cooperation Compromise These are all adaptive! Aversion Assertiveness Confrontation
- 50.
- 51. Emotions, Real andMediated Emotional responses – good or bad – require a meaningful stimulus + response Emotions are “modes of relational action readiness”(Fridja, 1986) In a video game, your reaction here might be more “real”…why?
- 52. Video games vs.films Some differences might be: Attention controls perception Mental maps of virtual space Coordination of visual attention and motor action Emotional significance of in- game events (continual) satisfaction Player-driven, not game- driven
- 53. Video games vs.films
- 54. Gaming and Control 1. Interaction between player and game transforms coping reactions to coping procedures; video games are output- driven, so players need to master the inputs 2. Games provide mastery over emotions; serve as our mood managers 3. Point-of-View activations go beyond mere perspective; allow us to internalize 4. Game violence is similar (enacted) to real- world violence; but takes place in a fantasy
- 55. Day Three: Mediaas Functional Media Psychology and Influence SPICE 2012 (Erfurt) ND Bowman PhD, Instructor
- 56. Outline Selective Exposure and Mood Management Media and Need Satisfaction Vitality and Restoration
- 57. Selective Exposure Theory People select media to: Dissipate noxious mood states Ruminate pleasant mood states Media selection determined by mood Not a (necessarily) cognitive process
- 58. SET and theBig Four Media Factors Arousal regulation Motivated to sustain an optimal level of arousal Excitatory Homeostasis Some media more arousing than others Intervention potential Some media more absorbing than
- 59. SET and theBig Four Content Factors Hedonic valence Theoverall pleasant/unpleasant form of the narrative Behavioral affinity How similar the media narrative is to the cause of one‟s current mood
- 60.
- 61.
- 62. Self-Determination Theory These are not hedonic needs (the “other 51%”) Media usage is functional (satisfies our needs)… But our needs are not always hedonic! Autonomy – sense of volition and willingness Competence – sense of challenge and effectiveness Relatedness – sense of connection with others Each of the above are needed for psychological growth and happiness
- 63. Self-Determination Theory Can media provide for these feelings? Enjoyment then might be the result of this need satisfaction Autotelism
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- 66. Media and Vitality Media use is often considered distracting (displacement hypothesis) Particularly in the workplace: $175M “lost” for each March Madness weekend $1.5B “lost” by employees playing
- 67. Media and Vitality But, is there more going on here? Distraction is not always a bad thing, particularly as it can aid in recovery (restoration of vitality) Psychological detachment What Theory Might Explain Relocation This? Mastery experiences Control
- 68. Media and Vitality Studies show play can help with recovery Play in general enhances all four recovery experiences, but digital games play might be easier to do at work Video games are: Easy to access via computer Immersive Absorbing Transporting Provide for control OTHERS?
- 69.
- 70. BONUS: Moral Foundations Theory Morality is intuitive, not cognitive In line with cognitive miser ideal Five moral foundations 1. Harm/care 2. Fairness/reciprocity Enjoyment 3. In-group/loyalty comes from the satisfaction of 4. Authority/respect salient moral 5. Purity/sanctity foundations
- 71. Support for MFT Conservatives and Liberals – harm/care and fairness Liberals Conservatives – equal weight Heroes and villains dispositions toward characters can be determined by how they (characters) violate or uphold moral foundations
- 72. Support for MFT Conservatives and Liberals – harm/care and fairness Liberals Conservatives – equal weight Heroes and villains dispositions toward characters can be determined by how they (characters) violate or uphold moral foundations
- 73. Digital Natives Digital Natives = born into technology Adjusted to social mores of Internet, gaming Morality is “under (social) construction” Germany US Salience % Violation Salience % Violation Harm/ care 4.44 (.98) 30% 4.47 (.99) 64% Fairness/ reciprocity 4.37 (.95) 12% 4.36 (.91) 24% Authority/ respect 3.89 (.96) 57% 4.27 (.95) 63% In-group/ loyalty 3.88 (.85) 38% 4.33 (.94) 48% Purity/ sanctity 3.61 (.92) 54% 3.97 (.99) 40%
- 74. Digital Immigrants Digital Immigrants = still adopting technology Still learning customs of technology Well-established sense of mores and customs Germany US Salience % Violation Salience % Violation Harm/ care 5.2 (.6) 25% 4.9 (.7) 10% Fairness/ reciprocity 5.0 (.6) 9% 4.7 (.6) 5% Authority/ respect 3.7 (.9) 72% 4.5 (.8) 34% In-group/ loyalty 4.1 (.8) 67% 4.3 (.9) 45% Purity/ sanctity 3.8 (1.0) 65% 4.0 (1.2) 32%
Editor's Notes
- #74 For our German children, we saw their moral salience scores fall in line with what we might expect from a German population. Harm/Care and Fairness/Reciprocity were rated as most salient, and significantly more so than the other moral modules. As well, Germany children chose not to violate Harm/Care and Fairness/Reciprocity, in line with theory (“gut” decisions). For the other moral modules, violations were observed at random (“game” decisions). The story in the US was a bit different. First, we really didn’t find stark differences in moral salience patterns in the US as would have been expected (the increased salience of Authority/Respect, In-group/Loyalty, and Purity/Sanctity). However, this might not be surprising as moral foundations develop through the life-span and might not have been salient just yet (this is why we have the Elderly sample in the study). The fairness/reciprocity effect was replicated in the US children (again, not surprising as Fairness/Reciprocity importance has been found in children as young as three – it is often thought to be the module that develops first). Particularly troubling is the Harm/Care finding – that decisions to violate were random but trended toward violation even though this was the most salient module for US (and for that matter, Germans). But I think we can explain this:Methodologically, the Harm/Care scenario was “first” in the video game. We noticed in at least two experimental sessions with US participants that 100% of all participants in the study that the children chose violation. This could merely be a procedural artifact as it was the first “option” in the game (as well as in the study). We are not sure why this didn’t happen in the German sample (maybe they listen to instructions better *wink*)We found spatial presence scores to be significantly higher in the US children than the German children. This is interesting because it might suggest that US respondents approached the game as just that, a game. Approaching the simulation as a game might have given them license to violate Harm/Care, or moreover they might have tapped into a “learned expectation” regarding video game play as inherently violent – in other words, they behaved more violently because in video games, this sort of behavior is okay; they were in the “magic circle” of the video game where real-world social mores do not apply. This effect should be studied in replication.
- #75 With the digital immigrants, we saw the most important modules (Harm/Care and Fairness/Reciprocity) to be the least violated, both between and across nations. Our German respondents’ moral salience was right in line with earlier surveys (Harm/Care and Fairness/Reciprocity being most salient). For the us, module salience didn’t differ significantly in that all scores hovered around 4.5 on our 6.0 scale; perhaps not surprising in that our sample was a bit more liberal than the “typical” American sample – for purposes of our study, they (the US elderly) behaved more German! ODD FINDING: German participants seemed to violate morality much more overall. Presence for the German elderly was low, which suggests that they might have merely been playing around with the game and it’s options. This runs counter to our discussion above about US children having high presence and therefore making “game” reactions more, but with one key difference – in the Germans, there were not likely any learned expectations about technology. We have some anecdotal evidence to suggest that they weren’t taking the study very seriously and might have been goofing around. In other words, not playing the game for “gaming” sake but playing around to finish the study. We’re also considering measuring technophobia or other related measures to see how they are approaching games differently from other populations.