This document summarizes several theories of mediated communication and culture. It discusses theories related to mass communication vs mediated communication, media richness, uses and gratifications theory, agenda setting theory, and cultivation theory. It also covers theories of culture including Hofstede's cultural dimensions, gender differences in communication, and generational differences. Finally, it explains face negotiation theory and how conflict styles vary across cultures based on concepts of self-face and other-face concern.

1. Week 4: Getting Together
Explaining Theories of Mediated Communication

2.  Mass communication vs. mediated communication
 Mass communication: concerned with the media, and
complex organizations that distribute messages to the
public
 Mediated communication: any communication in which
something exists between the source and the receiver
 All mass communication is mediated, but not all mediated
communication is mass communication.

3.  Daft & Lengel
 Premise: as new communication technologies develop,
the decision about the best way to send a message
becomes increasingly complex

4.  Media richness refers to a medium’s information
carrying capacity
 Medium richness is determined by four
characteristics:
1. Speed of feedback (synchronous or asynchronous)
2. Ability to personalize the message
3. Availability of multiple cues
4. Language variety

5.  How Ambiguous is the Message?
 Ambiguity: possibility of multiple interpretations
 Ambiguous messages run a greater risk of being
misunderstood
 Communication effectiveness = match between message
ambiguity and richness of the medium selected

6. Richer Media
• Face-to-Face
• Video Conferencing
• Telephone
• Texting, Instant Messaging
• E-mail
• Recordings
• Memos, Letters
• Bulk Mail, Brochures, Pamphlets, Flyers
Leaner Media

7.  Katz, Blumler, & Gurevitch
 Premise: UGT maintains that because humans have
options and free will, individuals will make specific
decisions about which media to use and when to use
them

8.  Assumptions of UGT
1. Audience members actively use various media to
fulfill certain needs
 Media itself is not passive, involuntary, or coerced; media
offers options
2. Mass communication is not something that “happens
to you” ; a person must identify his or her need and
make a media choice
 Audience members choose a medium and allow
themselves to be swayed, changed, and influenced.
3. Third, media outlets compete with other available
means of satisfying personal needs

9. Gratification Selected Examples
Entertainment • Listening to music to set a mood
• Playing on Facebook because you’re
bored
Information • Seeking advice about practical matters,
like how to cook a turkey (Food
Network)
Personal identity • Reading Vogue or Esquire so you know
how to dress and be considered stylish
Personal relationships & social • Listening to the Sports Radio Network
interaction on your drive to work so you can talk
about it with coworkers

10.  McCombs & Shaw
 Premise: news media have an agenda; news media
tells audiences what “news” to consider as important.

11.  Two assumptions
 News media have an agenda
 Most people desire help when trying to understand and
evaluate politics and political reality
 Criteria for Measuring Media’s Agenda
 Length
 Position

12.  Framing the news
 Gatekeepers select, emphasize, elaborate, and even
exclude news stories or parts of news stories to create a
certain effect
Elements of Framing
Selection What stories are chosen?
Emphasis What focus is taken?
Elaboration What is added to develop story?
Exclusion What stories or aspects of stories are not
covered?

13.  Issues and Individuals Most Affected
 Despite media’s ability to influence, an individual’s
thoughts, opinions, and actions are not predetermined
 Certain issues and situations are more likely to influence
audience thought:
 Political issues
 Individual’s need for orientation: depends on topic’s
relevance and person’s uncertainty about the issue
 Gatekeepers selectively determine an agenda for what’s
news

14.  Gerbner
 Premise: Cultivation theory predicts that viewers who
watch lots of TV will overestimate the occurrence of
real-life violence, thereby perceiving the world as a
“mean and scary” place

15.  Assumptions:
1. Television has become central to American life and
culture
2. TV influences audience perceptions of social reality,
thereby shaping American culture in terms of how
individuals reason and relate with others
3. Television’s effects are limited

16.  Focus on Violence
 Definition:
 “Overt expression of physical force (with or without
weapon, against self or others) compelling action
against one’s will on pain of being hurt and/or killed or
threatened to be so victimized as part of the plot” (p.
280)
 Violence index
 Objective research instrument; uses content analysis to
measure the prevalence, frequency, and role of
characters that are involved in TV violence

17.  Symbolic double jeopardy
 Research illustrates an imbalance with regard to who is
victimized
 Minority persons are significantly less visible on TV than
in real life, and
 Minority TV characters are much more likely to be
portrayed as victims of violence.

18.  Viewers’ attitudes are cultivated in two ways:
1. Mainstreaming
2. Resonance
 The result? Mean World Syndrome
 Heavy TV viewers more likely to develop
 Cynical, fearful outlook
 World is “mean and scary place”

19. Explaining Theories of Culture

20.  Culture: one’s identification with and acceptance into
a group that shares symbols, meanings, experiences,
and behavior
 Cross-cultural communication
 Intercultural communication

21.  Hofstede
 Premise: Research revealed that there are five
dimensions that can be used to explain, differentiate,
and rank various cultures

22.  Individualism—Collectivism
 Extent to which cultures value and privilege individual’s
success over the group’s success or vice versa
 Low-context communication
 High-context communication

23.  Uncertainty Avoidance (High—Low)
 Extent to which appreciate or avoid unstructured,
unclear, or unpredictable situations
 Low uncertainty avoidance cultures: more inclined to take
risks, innovate, and value “thinking outside of the box”
 High uncertainty avoidance cultures maintain strict codes of
behavior, and support a belief in absolute truths

24.  Power Distance (High—Low)
 Extent to which people with little power in society
consider inequity normal and acceptable
 Low power distance cultures value minimization of power
distances
 High power distance cultures accept power as a scarce
resource

25.  Masculinity—Femininity
 Emphasizes the relationship between biological sex and
what is considered sex-appropriate behavior
 Masculine cultures: rely on distinct sex roles for men and
women
 Feminine cultures: fewer rigid roles for behavior based on
biological sex

26.  Time Orientation: Long-term—Short-term
 Extent to which cultures value a long-term or short-term
approach to planning the future
 Long-term orientation: associated with thrift, savings, and
perseverance
 Short-term orientation: associated with desire for immediate
gratification

27.  Maltz & Borker
 Mulac, Bradac, and Gibbons
 Premise: gender is socially constructed; biological sex
differences in communication are minimal; gender
differences in communication do exist when examined
as a separate construct

28.  Sex – biological classification (male or female)
 Gender – psychological and social associations of
femininity and masculinity; may or may not correlate
with biological sex

29.  Research shows little support for the myth that men
and women differ in communication behavior simply
because of biological sex
 Gender research shows difference between masculine
and feminine communication styles:
 A feminine communication style is positively related to:
 Romantic relationship satisfaction
 Positive and collaborative strategies for dealing with jealousy
 Decreased loneliness among long-distance friends

30. Theoretical Examinations of Gender
Theory Main Idea
Standpoint Men and women have different experiences that
Theory shape the way they view the world. Because of these
variations, men and women communicate
differently
Tannen’s Gender Women use communication to establish
Styles connections with others, whereas men use
communication to establish or maintain power over
others
Muted Group Because men have more power in society, language
Theory and meaning is biased toward a male perspective
on life. Women must adapt and use male language
or go unheard

31.  Twenge & Campbell
 Premise: because each generation is influenced by
specific events, members of a generation share
symbols, meanings, experiences, and behavior that is
distinct from other generations

32. Four generations in the today’s workplace
Generations Selected Characteristics
Veterans Value respect, discipline; work is obligation; formal
(1922-1945) communication; autocratic leadership
Baby Boomers Value optimism, involvement; work is for self-
(1946-1964) fulfillment; face-to-face communication, meetings;
consensual leadership
Generation X Values cynicism, informality; work as entrepreneurial;
(1965-1980) direct communication; comfortable with technology;
confrontational leadership
Millenials Value clarity, flexibility; work as mechanism for success;
(1980-2000) constant communication/contact; relies on technology
to communicate; passive/aggressive leadership

33.  Ting-Toomey
 Premise: theory explains and predicts the cultural
differences associated with conflict management

34.  Face: desired self-image
 Positive face
 Negative face
 Individuals try to balance their own positive and
negative face needs while also attending to their
partner’s face needs

35.  Face + Cultural Orientation
 Individualism—Collectivism
 Individualistic cultures: emphasize negative face
 Collectivistic cultures: emphasize positive face
 Power Distance
 Low power distance cultures prefer to view individuals as
equals
 High power distance cultures rely on hierarchy and status
difference

36.  Conflict
 North American conflict styles: vary on assertiveness
and cooperation (Thomas & Kilmann, 1977)
1. Avoid
2. Accommodate
3. Compete
4. Compromise
5. Collaborate

37.  Face + Culture + Conflict Management
 Ting-Toomey’s cross cultural research adds 3 conflict
styles based on self and other face concern
1. Emotionally expressive
2. Passive-aggressive
3. Third-party help

38. Oblige Integrate
(High)
Avoid
Other-Face Concern
Compromise
Passive Emotional
Aggression Expression
Third-Party
Help
Dominate
(Low)
(Low) Self-Face Concern (High)
Collectivist Cultures
Individualist Cultures
Used by Both Cultures