This document discusses different types of fallacies, or flaws in reasoning, that can undermine arguments. It outlines two main categories of fallacies: fallacies of relevance, where the premises are irrelevant to the conclusion; and fallacies of insufficient evidence, where the premises do not provide enough support. Specific fallacies of relevance discussed include appealing to a claim's origin (genetic fallacy), attacking the person making the claim rather than the claim itself (ad hominem), rejecting an argument because the person fails to practice what they preach (tu quoique), comparing an action to another wrong action to justify it (two wrongs make a right), assuming a claim is true because many people believe it (appeal to popularity), assuming
The document discusses different types of logical fallacies, including fallacies of accident, hasty generalization, irrelevant conclusion, and affirming the consequent. It provides examples of each fallacy type and explains the logical flaws in the arguments.
This document discusses the concepts of validity, soundness, inductive and deductive arguments. It provides examples of valid and invalid arguments. The key points are:
- Inductive arguments cite evidence to reasonably support a conclusion, while deductive arguments aim to conclusively establish a thesis.
- An argument is valid if the conclusion must be true if the premises are true, regardless of whether the premises and conclusion are actually true.
- An argument is sound if it is valid and all premises are true, making the conclusion necessarily true.
- Examples are used to illustrate valid versus invalid argument forms and how to identify the patterns that determine validity.
This document provides guidance on developing an effective thesis statement. It explains that a thesis statement is one sentence that states the main idea or argument of an essay. It should be placed at the end of the introduction paragraph and let the reader know what to expect from the rest of the essay. The thesis must be specific, succinct, and suggestive of the organization of the essay. Body paragraphs should then provide evidence to support the claims made in the thesis statement.
This document discusses the counter argument and how to effectively incorporate it into an essay. It defines a counter argument as bringing up arguments against your own position. Including counter arguments makes an author seem more reliable by acknowledging valid points on the other side. The document recommends addressing a counter argument in its own separate paragraph after the two body paragraphs supporting your position but before the conclusion. It provides an example of how to briefly mention the counter argument and then clearly dismiss it.
This document discusses logical fallacies and provides examples of common fallacies. It defines 14 different types of fallacies including hasty generalization, begging the question, slippery slope, appeal to authority, and straw man. For each fallacy it provides a definition and example to illustrate how the fallacy works. It also includes examples of arguments and asks the reader to identify which fallacy is being committed.
The document discusses logical fallacies and different types of faulty reasoning. It begins by explaining deductive and inductive reasoning, and how faulty syllogisms and incorrect premises or conclusions can lead to logical fallacies. It then defines a logical fallacy as an error in reasoning, and explains that fallacious arguments may sound convincing but are flawed. The document proceeds to discuss 9 common logical fallacies - red herring, post hoc, circular reasoning, hasty generalization, appeal to tradition, false dilemma, appeal to fear, false analogy, and non sequitur. It emphasizes the importance of being able to identify logical fallacies in one's own and other's writing.
With a view to employing logic appropriately we should be aware of logical fallacies we might commit. Some are common and unintentional , others are deliberate .Some are tricks to win an argument, others are simply immoral and should be avoided.
An argument is a logical structure with premises that lead to a conclusion. Arguments can be evaluated based on validity, truth, and soundness. Validity means the conclusion follows logically from the premises. An argument is sound if it is valid and all premises are true. Inductive and deductive reasoning differ in strengths and weaknesses. Inductive relies on experience while deductive accepts fixed definitions, but may lead to apparently necessary but false conclusions. Fallacies and counterarguments should be considered when critically evaluating arguments.
The document discusses different types of logical fallacies, including fallacies of accident, hasty generalization, irrelevant conclusion, and affirming the consequent. It provides examples of each fallacy type and explains the logical flaws in the arguments.
This document discusses the concepts of validity, soundness, inductive and deductive arguments. It provides examples of valid and invalid arguments. The key points are:
- Inductive arguments cite evidence to reasonably support a conclusion, while deductive arguments aim to conclusively establish a thesis.
- An argument is valid if the conclusion must be true if the premises are true, regardless of whether the premises and conclusion are actually true.
- An argument is sound if it is valid and all premises are true, making the conclusion necessarily true.
- Examples are used to illustrate valid versus invalid argument forms and how to identify the patterns that determine validity.
This document provides guidance on developing an effective thesis statement. It explains that a thesis statement is one sentence that states the main idea or argument of an essay. It should be placed at the end of the introduction paragraph and let the reader know what to expect from the rest of the essay. The thesis must be specific, succinct, and suggestive of the organization of the essay. Body paragraphs should then provide evidence to support the claims made in the thesis statement.
This document discusses the counter argument and how to effectively incorporate it into an essay. It defines a counter argument as bringing up arguments against your own position. Including counter arguments makes an author seem more reliable by acknowledging valid points on the other side. The document recommends addressing a counter argument in its own separate paragraph after the two body paragraphs supporting your position but before the conclusion. It provides an example of how to briefly mention the counter argument and then clearly dismiss it.
This document discusses logical fallacies and provides examples of common fallacies. It defines 14 different types of fallacies including hasty generalization, begging the question, slippery slope, appeal to authority, and straw man. For each fallacy it provides a definition and example to illustrate how the fallacy works. It also includes examples of arguments and asks the reader to identify which fallacy is being committed.
The document discusses logical fallacies and different types of faulty reasoning. It begins by explaining deductive and inductive reasoning, and how faulty syllogisms and incorrect premises or conclusions can lead to logical fallacies. It then defines a logical fallacy as an error in reasoning, and explains that fallacious arguments may sound convincing but are flawed. The document proceeds to discuss 9 common logical fallacies - red herring, post hoc, circular reasoning, hasty generalization, appeal to tradition, false dilemma, appeal to fear, false analogy, and non sequitur. It emphasizes the importance of being able to identify logical fallacies in one's own and other's writing.
With a view to employing logic appropriately we should be aware of logical fallacies we might commit. Some are common and unintentional , others are deliberate .Some are tricks to win an argument, others are simply immoral and should be avoided.
An argument is a logical structure with premises that lead to a conclusion. Arguments can be evaluated based on validity, truth, and soundness. Validity means the conclusion follows logically from the premises. An argument is sound if it is valid and all premises are true. Inductive and deductive reasoning differ in strengths and weaknesses. Inductive relies on experience while deductive accepts fixed definitions, but may lead to apparently necessary but false conclusions. Fallacies and counterarguments should be considered when critically evaluating arguments.
This document discusses logical fallacies and how to identify them. It defines and provides examples of common fallacies such as hasty generalization, missing the point, post hoc, slippery slope, weak analogy, appeal to authority, ad populum, ad hominem, appeal to pity, appeal to ignorance, straw man, red herring, false dichotomy, begging the question, and equivocation. It encourages readers to ask questions to determine if an argument relies on one of these fallacious techniques rather than sound logic.
Analysis - Inductive and Deductive ArgumentsAlwyn Lau
The document discusses deductive and inductive arguments. It defines deductive arguments as trying to prove conclusions with inescapable logic, while inductive arguments claim conclusions are probable or likely given the premises. Common patterns of deductive reasoning include hypothetical syllogisms, categorical syllogisms, elimination arguments, and arguments based on definitions. Common patterns of inductive reasoning include generalization, prediction, appeals to authority, causal reasoning, statistics, and analogy.
This document discusses the key components of a strong thesis statement. It begins by defining a thesis statement as the final piece of an introduction that tells the reader what the essay will be about and provides focus and direction. It then outlines four steps to write a thesis statement including choosing a topic, creating a question, finding at least three reasons to answer the question, and combining them into a statement. The document also presents four "commandments" for an effective thesis statement: choose a side or position, be brief and specific, do not state obvious facts, and focus on a single main idea. Examples are provided to illustrate strong and weak thesis statements.
The document discusses key aspects of conducting research and writing a research report. It addresses the importance of project management and having clear objectives. It also discusses the elements of a research report, including presenting the report as a story or argument. The document notes that a literature review is important to understand what is already known on a topic and to identify research gaps. It advises that a conclusion should discuss the significance of findings and their implications.
Research Methods in Education and Education Technology Prof Lili Saghafi Con...Professor Lili Saghafi
There are many different methodologies that can be used to conduct educational research.
The type of methodology selected by a researcher emanates directly from the research question that is being asked.
In addition, some of the differing techniques for conducting educational research reflect different paradigms in scientific thought.
Here a review of the most commonly used methodologies is presented the strengths and weaknesses of various methods are compared and contrasted.
The document provides an introduction to common logical fallacies. It defines fallacies as arguments that seem correct but are not valid upon examination. It focuses on three main categories of fallacies: fallacies of relevance, ambiguity, and presumption. Under fallacies of relevance, it discusses the argument from ignorance, appeal to inappropriate authority, appeal to popular opinion, complex question, begging the question, false dilemma, and ad hominem. It also covers fallacies of ambiguity like equivocation and accent. The document aims to help readers identify and avoid using fallacious reasoning.
The document discusses inductive and deductive approaches to research. Deductive reasoning moves from general premises to more specific conclusions, taking a "top-down" approach. Inductive reasoning moves from specific observations to broader generalizations and theories in a "bottom-up" approach. Arguments based on rules and principles use deduction, while observations tend to use induction. While deduction leads to certain conclusions, induction draws conclusions that are probable but not certain from observations.
This document distinguishes between facts and opinions. It provides examples of facts such as "My dog Max has four legs" and "Maple, oak, and pine are types of trees", which can be proven. Examples of opinions include "French fries taste better with ketchup" and "I think I look terrible in orange", which are personal beliefs. The document then prompts the reader to identify statements as facts or opinions, providing feedback when correct or incorrect answers are given to help the reader understand the difference between objective facts versus subjective opinions.
This document provides guidance on formatting in-text citations in APA style. It discusses citing sources with quotations and paraphrases, including providing the author's name, year of publication, and page number when needed. It also describes how to format citations for sources with two or more authors, sources without authors, and personal communications. Citations should be included in parenthesis in the text and correspond to full references in the reference list.
This document provides a 10 step guide for writing a research paper with ease. The steps include: thinking of a topic and questions, finding sources, reading sources and taking notes, brainstorming the structure, writing a thesis statement, drafting an introduction, writing the body in paragraphs with cited sources, drafting a conclusion, compiling a works cited page, and proofreading for spelling and grammar. Following these steps will help the writer organize their ideas and research into a well-written paper.
The document discusses the differences between deductive and inductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning starts with a general premise that is known to be true and uses logic to draw a specific conclusion. Inductive reasoning uses specific observations to draw a general conclusion that is probable but not certain. Examples are provided of arguments that use deductive or inductive logic.
The document discusses two main types of reasoning: deductive and inductive. Deductive reasoning involves reasoning from general premises to certain conclusions, while inductive reasoning involves reasoning from specific cases to probable conclusions. Deductive arguments can be determined as valid or invalid based on logical form, whereas inductive arguments exist on a spectrum of plausibility. Examples are provided to illustrate deductive arguments that necessarily follow from true premises and inductive arguments that draw probable but uncertain inferences. The document explores the differences between deductive and inductive reasoning in various contexts like the sciences, law, and everyday arguments.
This document summarizes several types of flawed or biased thinking that can undermine critical thinking. It discusses how we often draw conclusions based on inaccurate, incomplete or irrelevant information. Examples are given of how false information was used to justify the Iraq war and claims linking vaccines to autism. It also describes biases like confirmation bias, superiority bias, self-interest bias, group bias, and how inconsistencies in beliefs or behavior can occur.
This document discusses how to generate a research problem and formulate a research question. It explains that the research question is the most important part of a research proposal as it defines the research and guides the inquiry. The document provides guidance on developing a good research question, including that it should be feasible, interesting, novel, ethical, and relevant. It also describes different types of research questions such as those asking about existence, description, relationships, causality, and comparisons. Overall, the key aspects covered are identifying a research problem and narrowing it down to a specific research question.
The document discusses various logical fallacies and their definitions. It begins by explaining the origins of the word "fallacy" and provides some background. It then proceeds to define and give examples of several common fallacies, including ad hominem, post hoc ergo propter hoc, slippery slope, hasty generalization, and argumentum ad populum. It concludes with reviewing the definitions of some fallacies and introducing new ones such as begging the question and red herring.
This document defines and provides examples of various rhetorical devices and figures of speech that can be used when crafting speeches or other written works. It discusses alliteration, assonance, simile, metaphor, analogy, onomatopoeia, oxymoron, paradox, personification, understatement, pun, comparison, parallelism, imagery, rhetorical question, epistrophe/antistrophe, antithesis, hyperbole, and enumeratio. Examples are provided for each term to illustrate its proper use.
The document discusses various types of logical fallacies that can weaken arguments. It begins by defining a fallacy as a defect that weakens an argument. It then provides tips to help avoid common fallacies like hasty generalization, missing the point, post hoc reasoning, slippery slope, weak analogy, appeal to authority, ad populum, ad hominem, tu quoque, appeal to pity, appeal to ignorance, straw man, red herring, false dichotomy, begging the question, and equivocation. The overall goal is to help readers critically examine their own arguments and strengthen them by identifying and avoiding logical fallacies.
Transition words and phrases help connect ideas between sentences and paragraphs smoothly, making text easier to read. The document provides examples of transition words for various purposes, such as providing more information, examples, causes or reasons, results or effects, purposes or reasons, comparisons or contrasts, sequences, summaries, and conclusions.
This document discusses strategies for reading and evaluating arguments. It begins by defining what an argument is and its key components, including the claim, reasons, evidence, and potential refutations. It then provides guidelines for analyzing an argument, such as identifying the author's assumptions, determining the relevance and objectivity of the support, and assessing whether the argument is complete, valid, and credible. Finally, it discusses how to compare multiple arguments on an issue by evaluating the evidence used and determining which one is more convincing.
This document defines and provides examples of common logical fallacies used to invalidate arguments. It discusses fallacies such as ad hominem where one attacks the person instead of the issue, begging the question by assuming the conclusion as fact, false cause where an unrelated cause is cited to explain an event, and slippery slope implying one small step leads to catastrophe. Other fallacies presented include false analogy, oversimplification, rationalization, red herring, two wrongs make a right, hasty generalization, and straw man.
This document discusses logical fallacies and how to identify them. It defines and provides examples of common fallacies such as hasty generalization, missing the point, post hoc, slippery slope, weak analogy, appeal to authority, ad populum, ad hominem, appeal to pity, appeal to ignorance, straw man, red herring, false dichotomy, begging the question, and equivocation. It encourages readers to ask questions to determine if an argument relies on one of these fallacious techniques rather than sound logic.
Analysis - Inductive and Deductive ArgumentsAlwyn Lau
The document discusses deductive and inductive arguments. It defines deductive arguments as trying to prove conclusions with inescapable logic, while inductive arguments claim conclusions are probable or likely given the premises. Common patterns of deductive reasoning include hypothetical syllogisms, categorical syllogisms, elimination arguments, and arguments based on definitions. Common patterns of inductive reasoning include generalization, prediction, appeals to authority, causal reasoning, statistics, and analogy.
This document discusses the key components of a strong thesis statement. It begins by defining a thesis statement as the final piece of an introduction that tells the reader what the essay will be about and provides focus and direction. It then outlines four steps to write a thesis statement including choosing a topic, creating a question, finding at least three reasons to answer the question, and combining them into a statement. The document also presents four "commandments" for an effective thesis statement: choose a side or position, be brief and specific, do not state obvious facts, and focus on a single main idea. Examples are provided to illustrate strong and weak thesis statements.
The document discusses key aspects of conducting research and writing a research report. It addresses the importance of project management and having clear objectives. It also discusses the elements of a research report, including presenting the report as a story or argument. The document notes that a literature review is important to understand what is already known on a topic and to identify research gaps. It advises that a conclusion should discuss the significance of findings and their implications.
Research Methods in Education and Education Technology Prof Lili Saghafi Con...Professor Lili Saghafi
There are many different methodologies that can be used to conduct educational research.
The type of methodology selected by a researcher emanates directly from the research question that is being asked.
In addition, some of the differing techniques for conducting educational research reflect different paradigms in scientific thought.
Here a review of the most commonly used methodologies is presented the strengths and weaknesses of various methods are compared and contrasted.
The document provides an introduction to common logical fallacies. It defines fallacies as arguments that seem correct but are not valid upon examination. It focuses on three main categories of fallacies: fallacies of relevance, ambiguity, and presumption. Under fallacies of relevance, it discusses the argument from ignorance, appeal to inappropriate authority, appeal to popular opinion, complex question, begging the question, false dilemma, and ad hominem. It also covers fallacies of ambiguity like equivocation and accent. The document aims to help readers identify and avoid using fallacious reasoning.
The document discusses inductive and deductive approaches to research. Deductive reasoning moves from general premises to more specific conclusions, taking a "top-down" approach. Inductive reasoning moves from specific observations to broader generalizations and theories in a "bottom-up" approach. Arguments based on rules and principles use deduction, while observations tend to use induction. While deduction leads to certain conclusions, induction draws conclusions that are probable but not certain from observations.
This document distinguishes between facts and opinions. It provides examples of facts such as "My dog Max has four legs" and "Maple, oak, and pine are types of trees", which can be proven. Examples of opinions include "French fries taste better with ketchup" and "I think I look terrible in orange", which are personal beliefs. The document then prompts the reader to identify statements as facts or opinions, providing feedback when correct or incorrect answers are given to help the reader understand the difference between objective facts versus subjective opinions.
This document provides guidance on formatting in-text citations in APA style. It discusses citing sources with quotations and paraphrases, including providing the author's name, year of publication, and page number when needed. It also describes how to format citations for sources with two or more authors, sources without authors, and personal communications. Citations should be included in parenthesis in the text and correspond to full references in the reference list.
This document provides a 10 step guide for writing a research paper with ease. The steps include: thinking of a topic and questions, finding sources, reading sources and taking notes, brainstorming the structure, writing a thesis statement, drafting an introduction, writing the body in paragraphs with cited sources, drafting a conclusion, compiling a works cited page, and proofreading for spelling and grammar. Following these steps will help the writer organize their ideas and research into a well-written paper.
The document discusses the differences between deductive and inductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning starts with a general premise that is known to be true and uses logic to draw a specific conclusion. Inductive reasoning uses specific observations to draw a general conclusion that is probable but not certain. Examples are provided of arguments that use deductive or inductive logic.
The document discusses two main types of reasoning: deductive and inductive. Deductive reasoning involves reasoning from general premises to certain conclusions, while inductive reasoning involves reasoning from specific cases to probable conclusions. Deductive arguments can be determined as valid or invalid based on logical form, whereas inductive arguments exist on a spectrum of plausibility. Examples are provided to illustrate deductive arguments that necessarily follow from true premises and inductive arguments that draw probable but uncertain inferences. The document explores the differences between deductive and inductive reasoning in various contexts like the sciences, law, and everyday arguments.
This document summarizes several types of flawed or biased thinking that can undermine critical thinking. It discusses how we often draw conclusions based on inaccurate, incomplete or irrelevant information. Examples are given of how false information was used to justify the Iraq war and claims linking vaccines to autism. It also describes biases like confirmation bias, superiority bias, self-interest bias, group bias, and how inconsistencies in beliefs or behavior can occur.
This document discusses how to generate a research problem and formulate a research question. It explains that the research question is the most important part of a research proposal as it defines the research and guides the inquiry. The document provides guidance on developing a good research question, including that it should be feasible, interesting, novel, ethical, and relevant. It also describes different types of research questions such as those asking about existence, description, relationships, causality, and comparisons. Overall, the key aspects covered are identifying a research problem and narrowing it down to a specific research question.
The document discusses various logical fallacies and their definitions. It begins by explaining the origins of the word "fallacy" and provides some background. It then proceeds to define and give examples of several common fallacies, including ad hominem, post hoc ergo propter hoc, slippery slope, hasty generalization, and argumentum ad populum. It concludes with reviewing the definitions of some fallacies and introducing new ones such as begging the question and red herring.
This document defines and provides examples of various rhetorical devices and figures of speech that can be used when crafting speeches or other written works. It discusses alliteration, assonance, simile, metaphor, analogy, onomatopoeia, oxymoron, paradox, personification, understatement, pun, comparison, parallelism, imagery, rhetorical question, epistrophe/antistrophe, antithesis, hyperbole, and enumeratio. Examples are provided for each term to illustrate its proper use.
The document discusses various types of logical fallacies that can weaken arguments. It begins by defining a fallacy as a defect that weakens an argument. It then provides tips to help avoid common fallacies like hasty generalization, missing the point, post hoc reasoning, slippery slope, weak analogy, appeal to authority, ad populum, ad hominem, tu quoque, appeal to pity, appeal to ignorance, straw man, red herring, false dichotomy, begging the question, and equivocation. The overall goal is to help readers critically examine their own arguments and strengthen them by identifying and avoiding logical fallacies.
Transition words and phrases help connect ideas between sentences and paragraphs smoothly, making text easier to read. The document provides examples of transition words for various purposes, such as providing more information, examples, causes or reasons, results or effects, purposes or reasons, comparisons or contrasts, sequences, summaries, and conclusions.
This document discusses strategies for reading and evaluating arguments. It begins by defining what an argument is and its key components, including the claim, reasons, evidence, and potential refutations. It then provides guidelines for analyzing an argument, such as identifying the author's assumptions, determining the relevance and objectivity of the support, and assessing whether the argument is complete, valid, and credible. Finally, it discusses how to compare multiple arguments on an issue by evaluating the evidence used and determining which one is more convincing.
This document defines and provides examples of common logical fallacies used to invalidate arguments. It discusses fallacies such as ad hominem where one attacks the person instead of the issue, begging the question by assuming the conclusion as fact, false cause where an unrelated cause is cited to explain an event, and slippery slope implying one small step leads to catastrophe. Other fallacies presented include false analogy, oversimplification, rationalization, red herring, two wrongs make a right, hasty generalization, and straw man.
This document defines and provides examples of common logical fallacies. It discusses fallacies of relevance, including appeals to force, genetic fallacies, personal attacks, appeals to majority, tradition, and improper authority. It also covers fallacies of ambiguity, omission, emotion, adverse consequences, and personal incredulity. Examples are provided to illustrate each type of fallacious reasoning.
The document discusses how the media product represents various social groups through the use of stereotypes in its opening scene. The first killing adheres closely to stereotypes by having a mysterious male killer and a scared female victim. However, the second killing challenges stereotypes by having an upper-class male killer and a lower-class teenage female victim. By starting with stereotypes and then challenging them, the film keeps the audience engaged by surprising them while still maintaining understandability. The killers are also portrayed as working as a team, while the victims are isolated, further playing with stereotypes. The film is set in Suffolk, and represents it as both isolated and dangerous, challenging stereotypes of it being a safe rural area.
The document analyzes techniques used in several student films. It discusses the use of red herrings, concealed images of characters, jump cuts, point of view shots, lighting, sound effects, mysteries around the identity of killers, and other techniques to build suspense, tension, and keep audiences confused about what is happening. Multiple films employ techniques like never revealing the killer's identity, limited dialogue, timers adding a sense of urgency, and flashbacks to enhance the thriller and mysterious elements of the stories.
Common fallacies in_advertising_powerpointBuse Seker
This document defines common fallacies in advertising and provides examples of each. It discusses 9 different types of fallacies: ad hominem, appeal to emotions, false dilemma, appeal to the people, scare tactic, false cause, hasty generalization, red herring, and traditional wisdom. For each fallacy it gives a definition and example to illustrate how it can be used incorrectly in arguments and advertisements to manipulate people. The document suggests that fallacies are prevalent in many advertisements and aims to help people identify and understand common logical fallacies.
This document critiques presentations that use "red herrings" to argue for agile over traditional project management approaches. It asserts that many criticisms of traditional approaches actually represent examples of bad project management practices, not limitations of the approach. The document recommends focusing on established processes for areas like problem detection, continuous improvement, and lessons learned rather than presented conjectures. It concludes that for agile to be taken seriously by business leaders, it needs to demonstrate how it improves established processes and show value in quantifiable business terms rather than anecdotal experiences.
Non sequitur refers to a statement that does not logically follow from a previous statement. Examples include claiming that buying a cell phone will make people love you, ordering someone to obey because they are your spouse, and concluding that cows can jump over the moon based on the facts that cows graze and see the moon at night.
This document outlines an English class agenda that includes peer reviewing rough drafts of research essays, discussing logical fallacies, and having a literature circle discussion. It then provides a detailed explanation of 12 common logical fallacies: ad hominem, begging the question, false cause, post hoc ergo propter hoc, either-or fallacy, evasion, false analogy, oversimplification, rationalization, red herring, slippery slope, and two wrongs make a right. Examples are given for each fallacy and students are instructed to analyze arguments for logical fallacies.
This document introduces logical fallacies and their types. It defines a logical fallacy as a flawed argument that can damage credibility. Fallacies are divided into categories including relevance, components, ambiguity, and omission. Examples are given such as bandwagon appeals, slippery slopes, stacking the deck, and division. The document encourages students to develop skills in identifying fallacies in writing and arguments. Class activities are suggested to find examples of fallacies in media and presentations.
This document lists 15 examples of logical fallacies and asks the reader to identify each fallacy. The examples cover common fallacies such as red herring, hasty generalization, slippery slope, straw man, false dichotomy, appeal to pity, and appeal to false authority.
Common Fallacies In Advertising Powerpointmairacute
This document defines common fallacies in advertising and provides examples of each. It discusses 9 different types of fallacies: ad hominem, appeal to emotions, false dilemma, appeal to the people, scare tactic, false cause, hasty generalization, red herring, and traditional wisdom. For each fallacy type, it explains what the fallacy is and provides a brief example. The document concludes by stating that readers will work in groups to identify which fallacies are used in different advertisements.
Here are a few reasons why learning about specific fallacies is valuable:
1. It helps you identify faulty reasoning. Being able to name a fallacy helps recognize when an argument uses flawed or deceptive logic.
2. It improves critical thinking skills. Understanding different types of fallacies makes you better equipped to carefully evaluate arguments and detect weaknesses.
3. It enhances communication. Knowing fallacies allows you to avoid using flawed reasoning yourself and clearly explain issues in arguments to others.
4. It benefits decision making. Fallacies can distort facts and mislead conclusions. Recognizing them helps make well-informed judgments and prevent bad decisions.
5. It cultivates intellectual humility. Learning our own tendencies towards
This anti-smoking ad portrays grim reaper figures representing smoking as they go about their daily activities, implying that smoking is akin to inviting death into one's life. The ad warns that smoking is not just self-harm but harms others through secondhand smoke. It encourages viewers to visit TobaccoFreeCA.com for more information on the dangers of smoking and secondhand smoke.
This document defines logical fallacies and common types of fallacious arguments. It explains that an argument consists of premises and a conclusion, and fallacies occur when arguments fail in certain ways. Sixteen specific fallacies are described, including hasty generalization, slippery slope, appeal to authority, straw man, and equivocation. The document concludes with tips for preventing fallacious reasoning such as arguing against oneself and fairly characterizing opposing arguments.
This document defines and provides examples of various logical fallacies:
- Two wrongs make a right fallacy: Justifying a wrong action by pointing to another similar wrong action. Zidane headbutting an opponent who insulted his sister is given as an example.
- Division fallacy: Concluding that parts of a whole must share the whole's characteristics. Critics assuming an actor will be great due to his family's movie background is given.
- Non sequitur: When premises have no logical connection to the conclusion, like an advertisement linking eyebrow dancing to chocolate.
- Red herring: Introducing an irrelevant issue to divert attention from the original issue.
The post hoc fallacy refers to mistakenly assuming that because one event happened before another, the first event must have caused the second. This is the basis of many superstitions and rituals. The document provides an example of a cabbage farmer who performs an elaborate dance during a drought, and when it rains three weeks later, the village wrongly concludes the dance caused the rain and decides to continue the dances to end future droughts.
This document defines and provides examples of 20 common logical fallacies: strawman, false cause, appeal to emotion, the fallacy fallacy, slippery slope, ad hominem, tu quoque, personal incredulity, special pleading, loaded question, burden of proof, ambiguity, the gambler's fallacy, bandwagon, appeal to authority, composition/division, no true Scotsman, genetic, black-or-white, and begging the question. For each fallacy, it explains what it is and provides an example to illustrate how the fallacious reasoning works.
This linguistics lecture discusses logical fallacies of insufficient evidence, including inappropriate appeals to authority where the cited authority is unreliable, appeals to ignorance based on lack of evidence, false alternatives that pose false dichotomies
This linguistics lecture discusses logical fallacies of insufficient evidence, including inappropriate appeals to authority where the cited authority is unreliable, appeals to ignorance based on lack of evidence, false alternatives that pose false dichotomies
This document provides an overview and examples of logical fallacies of insufficient evidence, including inappropriate appeal to authority, appeal to ignorance, false alternatives, loaded questions, questionable cause, hasty generalization, slippery slope, and weak analogy. It defines each fallacy and gives examples to illustrate situations that would constitute each fallacy. The document is intended to help the reader understand and identify these common fallacies of reasoning.
This linguistics lecture discusses logical fallacies of insufficient evidence, including inappropriate appeals to authority where the cited authority is unreliable, appeals to ignorance based on lack of evidence, false alternatives that pose false dichotomies
This document discusses various types of logical fallacies. It begins by defining a fallacy as an argument that seems convincing but is logically unsound. It then examines several specific fallacies in more detail, including ad hominem, appeal to authority, appeal to belief, appeal to emotion, and appeal to novelty. Each fallacy is defined and an example is provided to illustrate how it works. The document aims to help the reader identify and understand common logical fallacies.
Critical thinking involves systematically evaluating beliefs and statements using rational standards. It examines life through examining one's beliefs, as Socrates said an unexamined life is not worth living. Critical thinking uses distinct procedures like identifying claims, premises, conclusions, and arguments to rationally assess existing beliefs and form new ones. Common impediments include self-interested, group, and subjective thinking. Deductive arguments aim to conclusively support conclusions while inductive arguments probably support conclusions. Fallacies involve irrelevant or unacceptable premises while various reasoning patterns help strengthen arguments.
1. The document discusses moral reasoning and using arguments to validate moral views, noting that beliefs and opinions are propositional claims that can be true or false.
2. It defines what constitutes an argument, noting that a good argument has true premises that are relevant to supporting the conclusion.
3. The document distinguishes between deductive arguments, which aim to prove a conclusion, and inductive arguments, which provide support for a conclusion rather than proving it definitively.
If there is something that would be considered difficult by most of the students but even young researchers, that would be to clearly define an argument and also manage to convey it without sounding judgemental or racist.
Chapter 3Evaluating Moral ArgumentsWhat Is Moral Reasoning.docxwalterl4
Chapter 3
Evaluating Moral Arguments
What Is Moral Reasoning?
Moral reasoningis ordinary critical reasoning applied to ethics.
Critical reasoning(also called critical thinking) is the careful, systematic evaluation of statementsand arguments.
Statements
A statement(or claim) is the assertion that something is either true or false. The following are examples of statements:“Murder is wrong.”“1 + 1 = 2”“Shakespeare wrote The Tempest.”
Statements and Arguments –1
When at least one statement attempts to provide reasons for believing another statement, we have an argument—a group of statements, one of which is supposed to be supported by the rest.
Statements and Arguments –2
The supporting statements are called premises.
The statement that is being supported by the others is the conclusion.
Identifying ArgumentsAn argumentis intended to prove something.All arguments share a pattern: at least one premise is required to support a conclusion.A cluster of unsupported claims is not an argument.The most reliable way to identify arguments is to look for the conclusion first.Look for indicator words:terms that often appear in arguments and signal that a premise or conclusion may be nearby.
Some words indicating a conclusion:
Therefore, consequently, hence, it follows that, thus, so, it must be thatSome words indicating a premise:
Because, since, for, given that, due to the fact that, for the reason that, the reason being, assuming that, as indicated by
Two Forms of Argument
A deductive argumentis supposed to give logically conclusivesupport to its conclusion.
An inductive argumentis supposed to offer probablesupport to its conclusion.
Common Deductive Argument FormsValid forms:Denying the antecedentAffirming the consequent Invalid forms:Affirming the antecedent(modus ponens)Denying the consequent(modus tollens)The hypothetical syllogism
Deductive Arguments
A deductive argument isvalidif the premises support the conclusion. That is, the conclusion follows necessarily from the premises. If the premises are true, then the conclusion must be true.
A deductive argument is invalidif the premises do not support the conclusion. That is, the conclusion does not follow necessarily from the premises. If the premises are true, then the conclusion may or may not be true.
A deductive argument is sound if it is valid and all its premises are true.
A deductive argument is unsound if it is invalid and/or any of its premises are false.
Inductive Arguments
An inductive argument is strongif it gives probable support to its conclusion. That is, if its premises are true, its conclusion is also likely to be true.
An inductive argument is weak if it does not give probable support to its conclusion. That is, if its premises are true, its conclusion is not more probable than not to be true.
An inductive argument is cogentif it is strong and all of its premises are true.
An inductive argument is not cogent if it is weakand/or any of.
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Week 7 faulty reasoning - teacher version
1. Critical Thinking
Faulty Reasoning: Fallacies
Bernard Ho
HonBSc, BEd, MSc
Humber College Institute of Technology and Advanced Learning
205 Humber College Boulevard
Toronto, ON M9W 5L7
bernard.ho@humber.ca
(416)675-6622 ext. TBA
2. Outline
• Fallacies in general
– Weaknesses in arguments
• Fallacies of relevance
– Arguments with irrelevant premises
• Fallacies of insufficient evidence
– Arguments with unacceptable premises
3. Arguments Try to Prove a Point
• If an argument is good, it is good no matter who
makes it.
• Arguments are good or bad because of their own
intrinsic strengths or weaknesses, not because of
who offers them up.
• An argument can fail because:
– The reasoning is faulty (invalid or weak);
– The premises are false (unsound or uncogent);
– Or both.
4. Arguments
Strict Necessity Test:
Is it the arguer’s intention to make the
conclusion follow necessarily from the premises?
YES NO
Deductive Inductive
If the premises are If the premises are
hypothetically true, do they hypothetically true, do they
guarantee the conclusion? make the conclusion probable?
YES NO YES NO
Valid Invalid Strong Weak
Are the premises actually true? Are the premises actually true?
YES NO YES NO
Sound Unsound Cogent Uncogent
5. Fallacies
• Fallacies can seem plausible and persuasive,
but really make no logical sense.
• You need to study fallacies to:
– Avoid committing them;
– Detecting when others do it.
6. Two Categories of Fallacies
• Fallacies of relevance
– Arguments that use premises that have nothing to
do with the conclusion.
– Premises are irrelevant.
• Fallacies of insufficient evidence
– Arguments with premises that are relevant to the
conclusion but still dubious.
– Premises fail to provide enough support for the
conclusion.
7. Fallacies of Relevance
• These fallacies have premises that are irrelevant to the
conclusion.
– Genetic fallacy
– Appeal to the person (Personal attack)
– Attacking the motive
– Tu quoique (Look who’s talking)
– Two wrongs make a right
– Appeal to popularity (Bandwagon)
– Appeal to ignorance
– Appeal to emotion (Appeal to pity)
– Red herring
– Straw man
8. Fallacies of Insufficient Evidence
• These fallacies have unacceptable premises:
– Begging the question
– False dilemma
– Slippery slope
– Hasty generalization
– Faulty analogy
– Questionable cause
9. Fallacy of Relevance: Genetic Fallacy
• Arguing that a claim is true or false solely because
of its origin.
Taylor’s argument regarding the existence of God
can’t be right because she’s an atheist.
We should reject that proposal for solving the
current welfare mess. It comes straight from the
Conservative Party.
Russell’s idea about tax hikes came to him in a
dream, so it must be a stupid idea.
10. Fallacy of Relevance: Genetic Fallacy
• These arguments fail because they reject a
claim based solely on where it comes from,
not on its merits.
• Judging a claim only by its source is a recipe
for error. Think of it this way:
– A good argument presented by a moron is still a
good argument.
– A bad argument presented by a genius is still a
bad argument.
11. Fallacy of Relevance:
Appeal to the Person
• Rejecting a claim by criticizing or discrediting
the person who makes it rather than the claim
itself.
• Also called an ad hominem or personal attack.
X is a bad or disreputable person.
Therefore, X’s argument must be faulty.
12. Fallacies of Relevance:
Appeal to the Person
• Common in criminal court (watch LAW & ORDER)
• Prosecutors and defence attorneys often try to
weaken their opponent’s case by discrediting
their witnesses.
Dr. Raza testified that Dr. Auster’s alcoholism led
Auster to incorrectly prescribe medication for
Suzanne Morton, thus causing her death. But Dr.
Raza earned his medical degree from the
University of Peshawar and has only practiced
medicine for a few years. His argument,
therefore, is worthless.
13. Fallacies of Relevance:
Appeal to the Person
• These arguments fail because they attempt to
discredit a claim by appealing to something
that is almost always irrelevant to it: a
person’s character, motives, or personal
circumstances.
• They say nothing about the quality of the
argument.
14. Fallacies of Relevance:
Appeal to the Person
Dr. Raza testified that Dr. Auster’s alcoholism led
Auster to incorrectly prescribe medication for
Suzanne Morton, thus causing her death. But Dr.
Raza is only testifying so that he avoids being
charged with falsifying medical documents.
Therefore, his argument should be rejected.
• Sometimes, it is reasonable to doubt a person’s
premises because of who they are.
– When you have reason to expect bias.
– When they seem to lack relevant expertise.
15. Fallacy of Relevance: Tu Quoique
• Also called Look Who’s Talking
• Rejecting a person’s argument or claim
because that person fails to “practice what
they preach”
X fails to follow his/her own advice.
Therefore, don’t believe his advice.
16. Tu Quoique?
I won’t stop smoking just because my doctor
tells me to. He won’t stop smoking either!
– This is a fallacy.
I should stop smoking like my doctor told me;
but so should my doctor!
– This is not a fallacy because no argument is
being rejected on the basis of the arguer
being a hypocrite.
17. Fallacy of Relevance:
Two Wrongs Make a Right
• Trying to make a wrong action look right, by
comparing it to another wrong (perhaps
worse) action.
X is as bad or worse than Y. Therefore Y is not
wrong.
18. Fallacy of Relevance:
Two Wrongs Make a Right
I don’t feel guilty about cheating on Dr.
Boyer’s test. Half the class cheats on his tests.
Why pick on me, Officer? Nobody comes to a
complete stop at that sign.
19. Two Wrongs Make a Right?
• Sometimes actions can be justified by the fact
that other actions have taken place.
I killed the man because he was about to kill me.
It was an act of self-defense.
I jumped into the pool when it was closed and off-
limits because my friend jumped in and was
drowning.
20. Fallacy of Relevance:
Appeal to Popularity
• Arguing that a claim must be true merely
because a substantial number of people
believe it.
• Also called bandwagon argument.
Everyone (or almost everyone, most people,
many people) believes X.
So X is true.
21. Fallacy of Relevance:
Appeal to Popularity
Most people agree that owning an SUV is safer
than owning a car. So I guess it must be true.
Of course the war is justified. Everyone believed
that it’s justified.
The vast majority of Canadians believe that
there’s a supreme being, so how could you doubt
it?
22. Fallacy of Relevance:
Appeal to Popularity
• These arguments fail because they assume
that a proposition is true merely because a
great number of people believe it.
• But as far as the truth of a claim is concerned,
what many people believe is irrelevant.
23. Appeal to Popularity?
Of course smoking causes cancer! Everybody
says so!
• A fallacy is a mistake of reasoning.
• An argument can use faulty reasoning, but it
can still have a true conclusion.
24. Appeal to Popularity?
• Not all appeals to popular beliefs or practices
are fallacious.
• If the premises are relevant to the conclusion,
these arguments are not fallacious.
All the villagers say that the water is safe to
drink. Therefore, the water is probably safe to
drink.
25. Fallacy of Relevance:
Appeal to Ignorance
• Arguing that a lack of evidence proves
something.
• The problem arises by thinking that a claim
must be true because it hasn’t been shown to
be false.
No one has shown that ghosts aren’t real, so
they must be real.
26. Fallacy of Relevance:
Appeal to Ignorance
It’s clear that God exists, because science
hasn’t proved that he doesn’t exist.
You can’t disprove my theory that Bigfoot lives
in the forests of B.C. Therefore, my theory
stands.
27. Fallacy of Relevance:
Appeal to Ignorance
• Lack of evidence alone can neither prove nor
disprove a proposition.
• Lack of evidence simply reveals our ignorance
about something.
28. Burden of Proof
• Appeals to ignorance involve the notion of
burden of proof.
– Burden of proof is the weight of evidence of
argument required by one side in a debate or
disagreement.
– Problems arise when the burden of proof is placed
on the wrong side.
29. Burden of Proof
• Usually rests on the side that makes a positive
claim.
• If you think that psychics exist, you bear the
burden of proof.
• If you think X causes cancer, you usually bear
the burden of proof.
30. Fallacy of Relevance:
Appeal to Emotion
• Using emotions as premises in an argument.
• Trying to persuade someone of a conclusion
primarily by arousing his or her feelings,
rather than presenting relevant reasons.
• These arguments fail because emotions are
irrelevant to the conclusion.
31. Fallacy of Relevance:
Appeal to Emotion
You should hire me for this network analyst
position. I’m the best person for the job. And if I
don’t get a job soon my wife will leave me, and I
won’t have enough money to pay for my
mother’s heart operation.
Officer, there’s no reason to give me a traffic
ticket for going too fast because I was just on my
way to the hospital to see my wife who is in a
serious condition to tell her I just lost my job and
the car will be repossessed.
32. Fallacy of Relevance: Scare Tactic
• Threatening to harm those who may not
accept the argument's conclusion.
• The threat is irrelevant to the conclusion.
If you don’t accept what I say something bad
will happen. Therefore, what I say is true.
This gun control bill is wrong for America, and any
politician who supports it will discover how wrong s/he is
at the next election
33. Scare Tactic?
• Not all threats are fallacies.
• If the threat is a natural consequence of an act
or belief, then the threat is relevant.
You should not pass that law because it will
hurt the public welfare.
34. Fallacy of Relevance: Red Herring
• Raising an irrelevant issue and then claiming
that the original issue has effectively been
settled.
• The irrelevant issue is just a distraction.
• All fallacies of relevance are red herrings, but
reserve this to describe fallacies that do not fit
into the other categories.
35. Fallacy of Relevance: Red Herring
Every woman should have the right to an
abortion on demand. There’s no question
about it. These anti-abortion activists block
the entrances to abortion clinics, threaten
abortion doctors, and intimidate anyone who
wants to terminate a pregnancy.
36. Fallacy of Relevance: Red Herring
• The last part of the argument may be true, and it
may be bad, but it’s not relevant.
• The issue is whether women should have the
right to abortion on demand.
• The arguer shifts the subject to the behaviour of
anti-abortion activists, as though their behaviour
has some bearing on the original issue.
• Their behaviour, of course, has nothing to do with
the main issue.
37. Fallacy of Relevance: Straw Man
• Distorting, weakening, or oversimplifying
someone’s position so that it can be more
easily attacked or refuted.
Distort a claim.
Refute the distorted claim.
38. Straw Man?
The Opposition is opposed to the new military
spending bill, saying that it’s too costly. Why
does the NDP always want to slash everything
to the bone? They want a pint-sized military
that couldn’t fight off a crazed band of
terrorists, let alone a rogue nation!
39. Straw Man?
The B.C. Civil Liberties Union has criticized a
new anti-porn law because they say it
constitutes unreasonable censorship. As usual,
they are defending the porn industry! They
want to make it easier for sickos to distribute
kiddy porn. Don’t let them do it. Don’t let
them win yet another battle in defence of
perversion.
40. Fallacies of Insufficient Evidence
• These fallacies have unacceptable premises:
– Begging the question
– False dilemma
– Slippery slope
– Hasty generalization
– Faulty analogy
– Questionable cause
41. Fallacy of Insufficient Evidence:
False Dilemma
• Asserting that there are only two alternatives
to consider in some issue when there are
actually more than two.
42. Fallacy of Insufficient Evidence:
False Dilemma
Look, either you support the war, or you are a
traitor to your country. You don’t support the
war. So you’re a traitor.
– This argument only works if there really are only
two alternatives.
– Because this argument does not allow other
possibilities, it is fallacious.
– If you can think up more possibilities, then you
may be looking at a false dilemma.
43. Fallacy of Insufficient Evidence:
Slippery Slope
• Arguing, without good reasons, that taking a
particular step will inevitably lead to a further,
undesirable step (or steps).
• If you take the first step on a slippery slope,
you will have to take others because the slope
is slippery.
44. Fallacy of Insufficient Evidence:
Slippery Slope
• Arguing, without good reasons, that taking a
particular step will inevitably lead to a further,
undesirable step (or steps).
• If you take the first step on a slippery slope,
you will have to take others because the slope
is slippery.
– But not all slopes are necessarily slippery.
– Some consequences are not inevitable.
45. Fallacy of Insufficient Evidence:
Slippery Slope
If the Federal Government’s “Gun Registry”
goes ahead, law-abiding citizens will have to
register their hunting rifles. Next thing you
know, the government will go further and
rifles will be banned altogether. And ultimately
all guns will be banned, and then before long,
anything that could be used as a weapon will
be illegal. So if the Gun Registry goes ahead,
we might as well turn in our pen-knives and
baseball bats now!
46. Fallacy of Insufficient Evidence:
Slippery Slope
Oppose increases in tuition! Or next thing you know,
tuition will be $20,000 per year!
We should not ban child pornography. After all, next
they’ll ban all pornography, then all erotica, and then
all romance novels!
If I give you an extension on your essay just because
you had the flu, next thing you know people will want
extensions because they have a hangover!