2. Caveat (an explanation or warning that
should be remembered when you are
doing or thinking about.
• Formal argument (e.g. syllogism)
–Inductive / deductive
• Fallacies
• Other philosophical methods
3.
4. Example:
1. Monkey eat bananas, Pedro eat bananas too,
therefore Pedro is Monkey
2. Maria is intelligent, Lisa is a friend of Maria,
therefore Lisa is Intelligent.
5. ACTIVITY:
1. Form a group of five members.
2. Each group must formulate five
arguments.
3. Present to the class.
6.
7. Analysis:
1.Looking at the arguments you focused on,
how would you assess the strength and
soundness of their arguments?
2. Are the arguments reasonable to you?
3. Do you agree with these arguments?
4. Do you think some arguments are
downright foolish or simply wrong?
5. What is your criterion for saying that this
arguments is a good one, and that
argument is bad?
8. GENERAL TYPES
• See list (word file: 28 fallacies with
suggested references)
1. FALLACIES OF RELEVANCE
2. FALLACIES OF WEAK INDUCTION
3. FALLACIES OF PRESUMPTION
4. FALLACIES OF AMBIGUITY
5. FALLACIES OF GRAMMATICAL ANALOGY
10. Argumentum ad Baculum
• Appeal to Force/Stick
–committed when one appeals to
–force or the threat of force
–to bring about the acceptance of a
conclusion.
Example:
Chairman of the Board: “ All those opposed to
my arguments for the opening of a new
department, signify by saying ‘I resign.’”
11. Argumentum ad Misericordiam
• Appeal to Pity
–pity or a related emotion
–such as sympathy or compassion is
–appealed to for the sake of
–getting a conclusion accepted.
“Sir, hindi ako nakapag-aral, mahirap
lang po kami.”
12. Argumentum ad Populum
• Appeal to the People
–attempting to win popular assent
to a conclusion by
–arousing the feeling and
enthusiasms of the multitude
13. Appeal to the Majority
SNOB APPEAL
• Elite or
• Select Few
BANDWAGON
• Most people
• Almost all
people
Person L says statement p.
Person L is in the elite.
Statement p is true.
Most, many, or ALL persons
believe statement p is true.
Statement p is true.
18. Appeal to Vanity
–Gaining support for an argument, not
by the strength of the argument, but
by
–using flattery on those whom you
want to accept your argument.
Argumentum ad Populum
19.
20. Ang bait-bait mo talaga, pahingi naman
ng Nova.
You look so radiant today, can you help
me in my assignment?
You have a beach body, can you help me
load the bags inside the car.
21. Argumentum ad Hominem
• Argument against the Person
–attacking the character or
circumstances of an individual who is
– advancing a statement or an
argument instead of
–trying to disprove the soundness of
the argument
22. Tu Quoque
“You Too” Argument
– rather than trying to disprove a remark
about someone's character or
circumstances,
– one accuses the other of having the same
character or circumstances.
Argumentum ad Hominem
23. Genetic Fallacy
• The genetic fallacy is committed when an
idea is
• either accepted or rejected
• because of its source,
• rather than its merit.
DILAWAN!!!
24. Fallacy of Accident
• an attempt is made to apply a general rule
to all situations, when clearly there are
exceptions to the rule.
DOCTORS AND KNIVES
26. Red Herring
• An irrelevant topic is introduced in an
argument to divert the attention of
listeners from the original issue
27. Argumentum ad Crumenam
Appeal to Money
• supposing that a conclusion must be
valid because the person making the
argument is wealthy
28. FALLACIES OF WEAK
INDUCTION
Argumentum ad Verecundiam
Argumentum ad Ignorantiam
Fallacy of Hasty
Generalization
Fallacy of False Cause
Slippery Slope Fallacy
Fallacy of Weak Analogy
29. Argementum ad Verecundiam
(Appeal to Inappropriate People)
• Using authority as evidence but the
authority is not really an authority on facts
relevant to the argument
• Uses the admiration of the famous to try
and win support
Logical Form:
According to person A, X is true.
Therefore, X is true.
32. Argumentum ad Ignorantiam
(Appeal to Ignorance)
• Also known as “argument from ignorance” or
“argument from lack of imagination”.
• Saying something is true only because there is
no evidence to prove it wrong (or saying
something is false only because there is no
evidence to prove it is true)
33. • Argument ad Ignorantiam can be
expressed in multiple ways, including the
following:
One cannot prove that this is true,
therefore it is false.
No one observed this occur, therefore
it did not occur.
There is no proof to support Argument
X, therefore Argument Y is true.
34. Fallacy of Hasty Generalization
• Also known as the Fallacy of Insufficient
Statistics, Fallacy of Insufficient Sample,
Hasty Induction.
• This fallacy is committed when a person
draws a conclusion about a population
based on a sample that is not large
enough.
35. It has the following form:
1. Sample S is taken from population P.
2. Sample S is a very small part of
population P.
3. Conclusion C is drawn from sample S.
• The person committing the fallacy is
misusing the following type of reasoning,
which is known variously as Inductive
Generalization, Generalization, and
Statistical Generalization:
36. • Example #1:
My father smoked four packs of cigarettes a
day since age fourteen and lived until the age
of sixty-nine. Therefore, smoking really can’t
be that bad for you.
• Explanation: It is extremely unreasonable
(and dangerous) to draw a universal
conclusion about the health risks of smoking
by the case study of one man.
37. Fallacy of False Cause
• The fallacy committed when an
argument mistakenly attempt to
establish a causal connection.
• Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc, Non Causa,
Pro Causa, Oversimplified Cause
38. Non Causa, Pro Causa
(Not the cause for a cause)
• In general, it is the fallacy of making a
mistake about the ascription of some
cause to an effect. This is the general
category of "false cause."
39. Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc
(After this, therefore because of this)
• The fallacy of arguing that one event was
caused by another event merely because
it occurred after that event.
• If A happened then B happened, then A
must have caused B to happen.
40. • I wore my purple sweater and my team
won against all the odds. Therefore, I am
going to wear that sweater to every
game.
• Bill purchased a new PowerMac and it
worked fine for months. He then bought
and installed a new piece of software.
The next time he starts up his Mac, it
freezes. Bill concludes that the software
must be the cause of the freeze.
41. Oversimplified Cause
• Explaining an event by relying on
casual factors that are insufficient to
account for the event or by
overemphasizing the role of one or
more of these factors
42. Example:
Coach says that the reason his team
won their last game is because the
team had a high carbohydrate meal
before the game.
43. Slippery Slope Fallacy
• Also known as “Camel’s Nose”
• The arguer claims that a sort of chain reaction, usually ending in
some dire consequence, will take place, but there's really not
enough evidence for that assumption.
• A person asserts that some event must inevitably follow from
another without any argument for the inevitability of the event
in question.
Form:
1.Event X has occurred (or will or might occur).
2.Therefore event Y will inevitably happen.
44. Animal experimentation reduces our
respect for life. If we don't respect life,
we are likely to be more and more
tolerant of violent acts like war and
murder. Soon our society will become a
battlefield in which everyone constantly
fears for their lives. It will be the end of
civilization. To prevent this terrible
consequence, we should make animal
experimentation illegal right now.
45. Fallacy of Weak Analogy
• This type of argument, the issue at
hand is compared to another issue,
which is entirely different but in
some ways related, and uses the
other issue for its conclusion’s
acceptability or rejection.
46. Arguments by analogy rest on a
comparison.
Their logical structure is this:
(1)A and B are similar.
(2) A has a certain characteristic.
Therefore:
(3) B must have that characteristic too
47. • Thieves are criminals. Since cheating
is stealing, cheaters are criminals.
• Guns are like hammers - they’re both
tools with metal parts that could be
used to kill someone.
