Summary
This paper reports on an experimental investigation that
uses coarse or dense wavelength division multiplexing
(CWDM, DWDM) for applications in high-speed
traveling-wave protection. This paper documents the
performance, opportunities, and pitfalls associated with
this application and outlines practical strategies for the
seamless integration of protection systems with the
latest generation of optical transport network (OTN)
technologies.
1. Introduction
Power system protection typically operates
autonomously, with communications-based schemes
historically reserved only to protect the most critical
transmission assets. Communications bandwidth and the
cost associated with providing it has for many decades
forced power system protection engineers to economize
on communications resources.
Communications-based protection scheme deployments
started with analog pilot wire, which sent current
transformer secondary signals over a span of several
kilometers. Pilot wire schemes evolved rapidly,
spanning ever-increasing distances. Power line carrier
technology, microwave links, and eventually time-
division multiplexing (TDM) channels, such as
synchronous optical network (SONET) and synchronous
digital hierarchy (SDH), came next. They enabled the
deployment of full segregated digital phase differential
schemes (ANSI Device #87), as illustrated
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
Performance Analysis of Ultra Wideband Communication SystemEditor IJMTER
Ultra-Wideband (UWB) is a radio transmission scheme that uses extremely low power
pulses of radio energy spread across a wide spectrum of frequencies. UWB has several advantages
over conventional continuous wave radio communications including potential support for high data
rates, robustness to multipath interference and fading. The paper covers Ultra Wide-Band
technology. General description, Challenges, various modulation schemes such as OOK, PAM,
PPM, and BPSK under specified Ultra Wide Band regimes: low Power spectral density, large
spreading ratio and a highly dispersive channel. The capacity and BER performance of a single user
ultra wideband communication is investigated for various modulation schemes and coded, uncoded
methods also simulated. Fading channel like Ricean and Rayleigh are compared. Channelized digital
receiver concept is discussed.
10-Gb/S Transmission of Wdm Pon for Man with 50km Reach Based On FtthIJERA Editor
The wavelength-division-multiplexed passive optical network (WDM-PON) is considered to be the next evolutionary solution for a simplified and future-proofed access system that can accommodate exponential traffic growth and bandwidth-hungry new applications. WDM-PON mitigates the complicated time-sharing and power budget issues in time division- multiplexed PON (TDM-PON) by providing virtual point-to-point optical connectivity to multiple end users through a dedicated pair of wavelengths. The objective of this paper is proposed a scheme for metropolitan area networks comprising optical components based on arrayed waveguide grating multiplexers, demultiplexers .The Arrayed waveguide gratings based multiplexers and demultiplexers for WDM applications prove to be capable of precise multiplexing and demultiplexing of a large number of channels with relatively low losses.
DYNAMIC OPTIMIZATION OF OVERLAP-AND-ADD LENGTH OVER MIMO MBOFDM SYSTEM BASED ...ijwmn
An important role performed by Zero Padding (ZP) in multi-band OFDM (MB-OFDM) System. This role
show for low-complexity in résistance against multipath interference by reducing inter-carrier interference
(ICI) and eliminating the inter-symbol interference (ISI) Also, zero-padded suffix can be used to eliminate
ripples in the power spectral density in order to conform to FCC requirements. At the receiver of MB-OFDM system needs to use of a technique called as overlap-and-add (OLA). Which maintain the circular convolution property and take the multipath energy of the channel.In this paper, we proposed a method of performing overlap-and-add length for zero padded suffixes. Then,we studied the effect of this method, dynamic optimization of overlap-and-add (OLA) equalization, on the performance of MIMO MBOFDM system on Bit Error Rate (BER) with AWGN channel and SalehValenzuela (S-V) Multipath channel Model.In the dynamic optimization OLA, the Length of ZP depends on length of channel impulse response (CIR).
These measures, based on SNR, insert the ZP according to the measurement.Dynamic optimization of length of ZP improves the Performance of MIMO MBOFDM system. In fact wedeveloped a technique to select the length of ZP as function of SNR and CIR estimate. In our simulation
this technique improve to 0.6 dB at BER=10-2 with a multipath channels CM4
Impulse Radio Ultra WideBand (IR-UWB) commu- nication has proven to be an important
technique for supporting high-rate, short-range, and low-power communication. In this paper, using
detailed models of typical IR-UWB transmitter and receiver structures, we model the energy
consumption per information bit in a single linkof an IR-UWB system, considering packet overhead,
retransmissions, and a Nakagami-m fading channel. Using this model, we minimize the energy
consumption per information bit by finding the optimum packet length and the optimum number of
RAKE fingers at the receiver for different transmission distances, using Differential Phase-shift keying
(DBPSK), Differential Pulse-position Modulation (DPPM) and On-off Keying (OOK), with coherent
and non-coherent detection. The increasing demand for wireless communication introduces efficient
spectrum utilization challenge. To address this challenge, cognitive radio (CR) is emerged as the key
technology; which enables opportunistic access to the spectrum. CR is a form of wireless
communication in which a transceiver can intelligently detect which communication channels are in
use and which are not, and instantly move into vacant channels while avoiding occupied ones..
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
Performance Analysis of Ultra Wideband Communication SystemEditor IJMTER
Ultra-Wideband (UWB) is a radio transmission scheme that uses extremely low power
pulses of radio energy spread across a wide spectrum of frequencies. UWB has several advantages
over conventional continuous wave radio communications including potential support for high data
rates, robustness to multipath interference and fading. The paper covers Ultra Wide-Band
technology. General description, Challenges, various modulation schemes such as OOK, PAM,
PPM, and BPSK under specified Ultra Wide Band regimes: low Power spectral density, large
spreading ratio and a highly dispersive channel. The capacity and BER performance of a single user
ultra wideband communication is investigated for various modulation schemes and coded, uncoded
methods also simulated. Fading channel like Ricean and Rayleigh are compared. Channelized digital
receiver concept is discussed.
10-Gb/S Transmission of Wdm Pon for Man with 50km Reach Based On FtthIJERA Editor
The wavelength-division-multiplexed passive optical network (WDM-PON) is considered to be the next evolutionary solution for a simplified and future-proofed access system that can accommodate exponential traffic growth and bandwidth-hungry new applications. WDM-PON mitigates the complicated time-sharing and power budget issues in time division- multiplexed PON (TDM-PON) by providing virtual point-to-point optical connectivity to multiple end users through a dedicated pair of wavelengths. The objective of this paper is proposed a scheme for metropolitan area networks comprising optical components based on arrayed waveguide grating multiplexers, demultiplexers .The Arrayed waveguide gratings based multiplexers and demultiplexers for WDM applications prove to be capable of precise multiplexing and demultiplexing of a large number of channels with relatively low losses.
DYNAMIC OPTIMIZATION OF OVERLAP-AND-ADD LENGTH OVER MIMO MBOFDM SYSTEM BASED ...ijwmn
An important role performed by Zero Padding (ZP) in multi-band OFDM (MB-OFDM) System. This role
show for low-complexity in résistance against multipath interference by reducing inter-carrier interference
(ICI) and eliminating the inter-symbol interference (ISI) Also, zero-padded suffix can be used to eliminate
ripples in the power spectral density in order to conform to FCC requirements. At the receiver of MB-OFDM system needs to use of a technique called as overlap-and-add (OLA). Which maintain the circular convolution property and take the multipath energy of the channel.In this paper, we proposed a method of performing overlap-and-add length for zero padded suffixes. Then,we studied the effect of this method, dynamic optimization of overlap-and-add (OLA) equalization, on the performance of MIMO MBOFDM system on Bit Error Rate (BER) with AWGN channel and SalehValenzuela (S-V) Multipath channel Model.In the dynamic optimization OLA, the Length of ZP depends on length of channel impulse response (CIR).
These measures, based on SNR, insert the ZP according to the measurement.Dynamic optimization of length of ZP improves the Performance of MIMO MBOFDM system. In fact wedeveloped a technique to select the length of ZP as function of SNR and CIR estimate. In our simulation
this technique improve to 0.6 dB at BER=10-2 with a multipath channels CM4
Impulse Radio Ultra WideBand (IR-UWB) commu- nication has proven to be an important
technique for supporting high-rate, short-range, and low-power communication. In this paper, using
detailed models of typical IR-UWB transmitter and receiver structures, we model the energy
consumption per information bit in a single linkof an IR-UWB system, considering packet overhead,
retransmissions, and a Nakagami-m fading channel. Using this model, we minimize the energy
consumption per information bit by finding the optimum packet length and the optimum number of
RAKE fingers at the receiver for different transmission distances, using Differential Phase-shift keying
(DBPSK), Differential Pulse-position Modulation (DPPM) and On-off Keying (OOK), with coherent
and non-coherent detection. The increasing demand for wireless communication introduces efficient
spectrum utilization challenge. To address this challenge, cognitive radio (CR) is emerged as the key
technology; which enables opportunistic access to the spectrum. CR is a form of wireless
communication in which a transceiver can intelligently detect which communication channels are in
use and which are not, and instantly move into vacant channels while avoiding occupied ones..
Radio Resource Management for Millimeter Wave & Massive MIMOEduardo Castañeda
We present some of the current trends at different research topics in PHY layer and system level analysis. We cover some aspects of the wireless channel for mmWave and talk about candidate bands with nice multi-path and non line-of-sight properties for cellular communications. We discuss about critical resource management techniques and how they can be applied for mmWaves. For cellular communications, the presentation explains that beamforming and scheduling depend on channel estimation, the geometry of the antenna array, the transceiver architecture, and the interference from adjacent cells. We also describe some of the main issues due to mobility and mention how centralized management can be used to avoid waste of resources and group base stations for coordinated operation. Finally we mention some of the most promising techniques to achieve load balance in heterogeneous networks.
Check out the video link in
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zmGnoXW5wr0
International Journal of Computational Engineering Research(IJCER) ijceronline
International Journal of Computational Engineering Research (IJCER) is dedicated to protecting personal information and will make every reasonable effort to handle collected information appropriately. All information collected, as well as related requests, will be handled as carefully and efficiently as possible in accordance with IJCER standards for integrity and objectivity.
Nocs performance improvement using parallel transmission through wireless linksijcsa
The Network-on-Chip (NoC) is a solution for integrating high numbers of cores on a single chip. The
integration of high number of cores especially on the mesh topology causes long diameter, which, in
turn, affects the network performance due to an increase in average hop count. Hence, other solutions
like long range links have been proposed to decrease average hop count. These links can be
implemented by new technologies such as high bandwidth on-chip wireless connection to decrease
latency. On-chip wireless links prepare high bandwidth interconnections using carbon nanotube
antennas. Wireless links bandwidth is higher than wire links;hence for handling bandwidth
incompatibility a new transmission rule is needed. In this paper, a method for transmitting/receiving
flits through the wireless links in a parallel manner is initially presented. Then, a parallel buffer
structure to store flits from wireless links is introduced. Finally, we demonstrate the advantages of the
proposed methodusing energy and latency analysis. Simulation results show that energy is saved
around 30% on the all-to-all traffic and 15% on the transpose traffic. Network latency as a function of
the packet injection rate can be improved on the all-to-all and transpose traffics around 71% and 19%,
respectively
Professor Mark Beach's presentation (without videos) on the University of Bristol's Massive MIMO activities as given at the IET's 'Towards 5G Mobile Technology – Vision to Reality' event, January 25th 2017.
Design of 4x4 optical MIMO using spatial ModulationSachin Talakeri
Utilizing illuminating LED arrays for visible light communication (VLC) in an indoor environment, an optical multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) system has intrigued great interest. In order to increase the potential VLC data rates, multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) systems have been proposed. MIMO schemes show the spectral efficiency improvement using spatial modulation
Advanced antenna techniques and high order sectorization with novel network t...ijwmn
Mobile operators commonly use macro cells with trad
itional wide beam antennas for wider coverage in th
e
cell, but future capacity demands cannot be achieve
d by using them only. It is required to achieve max
imum
practical capacity from macro cells by employing hi
gher order sectorization and by utilizing all possi
ble
antenna solutions including smart antennas. This pa
per presents enhanced tessellation for 6-sector sit
es
and proposes novel layout for 12-sector sites. The
main target of this paper is to compare the perform
ance
of conventional wide beam antenna, switched beam sm
art antenna, adaptive beam antenna and different
network layouts in terms of offering better receive
d signal quality and user throughput. Splitting mac
ro cell
into smaller micro or pico cells can improve the ca
pacity of network, but this paper highlights the
importance of higher order sectorization and advanc
e antenna techniques to attain high Signal to
Interference plus Noise Ratio (SINR), along with im
proved network capacity. Monte Carlo simulations a
t
system level were done for Dual Cell High Speed Dow
nlink Packet Access (DC-HSDPA) technology with
multiple (five) users per Transmission Time Interva
l (TTI) at different Intersite Distance (ISD). The
obtained results validate and estimate the gain of
using smart antennas and higher order sectorization
with
proposed network layout.
Oliver Holland - IEEE VTS UKRI - Energy efficiency challenges of data volume...Keith Nolan
Oliver Holland from King's College London talks about energy efficiency challenges of data volume increases and the use of sleep modes facilitated by opportunistic cognitive radio networking as a solution
Performance evaluation of VLC system using new modulation approachjournalBEEI
We propose a modified OFDM modulation based on multiband scheme for visible light communications (VLC) system. The method called catenated-OFDM VLC system can efficiently boost the propagation distance and combat multipath induced the inter symbol interference and inter carrier interference. Design parameters such as number of optical bands, input power, distance and data rate are varied to see their effect on the system performances. Simulation analysis is done using Optisys software Ver. 11.0. The results show that the proposed system offers a good performance at longer transmission distance of 12 m for input power of 2 dBm in case of Band=3 with 10 Gbps data rate. BER curves also indicates that the proposed system can be operated at very high data rate of 15 Gbps. This exhibits the ability of the proposed system to be one of the candidate for future optical wireless communication system.
An energy aware scheme for layered chain in underwater wireless sensor networ...IJECEIAES
Extending the network lifetime is a very challenging problem that needs to be taken into account during routing data in wireless sensor networks in general and particularly in underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSN). For this purpose, the present paper proposes a multilayer chain based on genetic algorithm routing (MCGA) for routing data from nodes to the sink. This algorithm consists to create a limited number of local chains constructed by using genetic algorithm in order to obtain the shortest path between nodes; furthermore, a leader node (LN) is elected in each chain followed by constructing a global chain containing LNs. The selection of the LN in the closest chain to the sink is as follows: Initially, the closest node to sink is elected LN in this latter because all nodes have initially the same energy value; then the future selection of the LN is based on the residual energy of the nodes. LNs in the other chains are selected based on the proximity to the previous LNs. Data transmission is performed in two steps: intra-chain transmission and inter-chain transmission. Furthermore, MCGA is simulated for different scenarios of mobility and density of nodes in the networks. The performance evaluation of the proposed technique shows a considerable reduction in terms of energy consumption and network lifespan.
Modelling and QoS-Achieving Solution in full-duplex Cellular SystemsIJCNCJournal
The global bandwidth scarcity and the ever-growing demand for fast wireless services have motivated the quest for new techniques that enhance the spectral efficiency (SE) of wireless systems. Most conventional SE increasing methods (e.g., adaptive modulation and coding) have already been exhausted. Single-channel full-duplex (SCFD) communication is a new attractive approach in which each node may simultaneously receive and transmit over the same frequency channel, and thus, it has the potential to double the current SE figures. In this paper, we derive a model for the signal-to-interference-plus-noise ratio (SINR) in a SCFD-based cellular system with imperfect self-interference cancellation. Furthermore, given a set of uplink and downlink quality of service requirements, we answer the following two fundamental questions. First, is this set achievable in the SCFD-based cellular system? Second, if the given set is achievable, what is the optimal achieving policy? To that end, we provide a unified model for the SCFD-based cellular system, and give insights in the matrix of interference channel gains. Simulation results suggest that depending on the locations of the users, a combination of full-duplex and half-duplex modes over the whole network is more favourable policy
Radio Resource Management for Millimeter Wave & Massive MIMOEduardo Castañeda
We present some of the current trends at different research topics in PHY layer and system level analysis. We cover some aspects of the wireless channel for mmWave and talk about candidate bands with nice multi-path and non line-of-sight properties for cellular communications. We discuss about critical resource management techniques and how they can be applied for mmWaves. For cellular communications, the presentation explains that beamforming and scheduling depend on channel estimation, the geometry of the antenna array, the transceiver architecture, and the interference from adjacent cells. We also describe some of the main issues due to mobility and mention how centralized management can be used to avoid waste of resources and group base stations for coordinated operation. Finally we mention some of the most promising techniques to achieve load balance in heterogeneous networks.
Check out the video link in
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zmGnoXW5wr0
International Journal of Computational Engineering Research(IJCER) ijceronline
International Journal of Computational Engineering Research (IJCER) is dedicated to protecting personal information and will make every reasonable effort to handle collected information appropriately. All information collected, as well as related requests, will be handled as carefully and efficiently as possible in accordance with IJCER standards for integrity and objectivity.
Nocs performance improvement using parallel transmission through wireless linksijcsa
The Network-on-Chip (NoC) is a solution for integrating high numbers of cores on a single chip. The
integration of high number of cores especially on the mesh topology causes long diameter, which, in
turn, affects the network performance due to an increase in average hop count. Hence, other solutions
like long range links have been proposed to decrease average hop count. These links can be
implemented by new technologies such as high bandwidth on-chip wireless connection to decrease
latency. On-chip wireless links prepare high bandwidth interconnections using carbon nanotube
antennas. Wireless links bandwidth is higher than wire links;hence for handling bandwidth
incompatibility a new transmission rule is needed. In this paper, a method for transmitting/receiving
flits through the wireless links in a parallel manner is initially presented. Then, a parallel buffer
structure to store flits from wireless links is introduced. Finally, we demonstrate the advantages of the
proposed methodusing energy and latency analysis. Simulation results show that energy is saved
around 30% on the all-to-all traffic and 15% on the transpose traffic. Network latency as a function of
the packet injection rate can be improved on the all-to-all and transpose traffics around 71% and 19%,
respectively
Professor Mark Beach's presentation (without videos) on the University of Bristol's Massive MIMO activities as given at the IET's 'Towards 5G Mobile Technology – Vision to Reality' event, January 25th 2017.
Design of 4x4 optical MIMO using spatial ModulationSachin Talakeri
Utilizing illuminating LED arrays for visible light communication (VLC) in an indoor environment, an optical multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) system has intrigued great interest. In order to increase the potential VLC data rates, multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) systems have been proposed. MIMO schemes show the spectral efficiency improvement using spatial modulation
Advanced antenna techniques and high order sectorization with novel network t...ijwmn
Mobile operators commonly use macro cells with trad
itional wide beam antennas for wider coverage in th
e
cell, but future capacity demands cannot be achieve
d by using them only. It is required to achieve max
imum
practical capacity from macro cells by employing hi
gher order sectorization and by utilizing all possi
ble
antenna solutions including smart antennas. This pa
per presents enhanced tessellation for 6-sector sit
es
and proposes novel layout for 12-sector sites. The
main target of this paper is to compare the perform
ance
of conventional wide beam antenna, switched beam sm
art antenna, adaptive beam antenna and different
network layouts in terms of offering better receive
d signal quality and user throughput. Splitting mac
ro cell
into smaller micro or pico cells can improve the ca
pacity of network, but this paper highlights the
importance of higher order sectorization and advanc
e antenna techniques to attain high Signal to
Interference plus Noise Ratio (SINR), along with im
proved network capacity. Monte Carlo simulations a
t
system level were done for Dual Cell High Speed Dow
nlink Packet Access (DC-HSDPA) technology with
multiple (five) users per Transmission Time Interva
l (TTI) at different Intersite Distance (ISD). The
obtained results validate and estimate the gain of
using smart antennas and higher order sectorization
with
proposed network layout.
Oliver Holland - IEEE VTS UKRI - Energy efficiency challenges of data volume...Keith Nolan
Oliver Holland from King's College London talks about energy efficiency challenges of data volume increases and the use of sleep modes facilitated by opportunistic cognitive radio networking as a solution
Performance evaluation of VLC system using new modulation approachjournalBEEI
We propose a modified OFDM modulation based on multiband scheme for visible light communications (VLC) system. The method called catenated-OFDM VLC system can efficiently boost the propagation distance and combat multipath induced the inter symbol interference and inter carrier interference. Design parameters such as number of optical bands, input power, distance and data rate are varied to see their effect on the system performances. Simulation analysis is done using Optisys software Ver. 11.0. The results show that the proposed system offers a good performance at longer transmission distance of 12 m for input power of 2 dBm in case of Band=3 with 10 Gbps data rate. BER curves also indicates that the proposed system can be operated at very high data rate of 15 Gbps. This exhibits the ability of the proposed system to be one of the candidate for future optical wireless communication system.
An energy aware scheme for layered chain in underwater wireless sensor networ...IJECEIAES
Extending the network lifetime is a very challenging problem that needs to be taken into account during routing data in wireless sensor networks in general and particularly in underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSN). For this purpose, the present paper proposes a multilayer chain based on genetic algorithm routing (MCGA) for routing data from nodes to the sink. This algorithm consists to create a limited number of local chains constructed by using genetic algorithm in order to obtain the shortest path between nodes; furthermore, a leader node (LN) is elected in each chain followed by constructing a global chain containing LNs. The selection of the LN in the closest chain to the sink is as follows: Initially, the closest node to sink is elected LN in this latter because all nodes have initially the same energy value; then the future selection of the LN is based on the residual energy of the nodes. LNs in the other chains are selected based on the proximity to the previous LNs. Data transmission is performed in two steps: intra-chain transmission and inter-chain transmission. Furthermore, MCGA is simulated for different scenarios of mobility and density of nodes in the networks. The performance evaluation of the proposed technique shows a considerable reduction in terms of energy consumption and network lifespan.
Modelling and QoS-Achieving Solution in full-duplex Cellular SystemsIJCNCJournal
The global bandwidth scarcity and the ever-growing demand for fast wireless services have motivated the quest for new techniques that enhance the spectral efficiency (SE) of wireless systems. Most conventional SE increasing methods (e.g., adaptive modulation and coding) have already been exhausted. Single-channel full-duplex (SCFD) communication is a new attractive approach in which each node may simultaneously receive and transmit over the same frequency channel, and thus, it has the potential to double the current SE figures. In this paper, we derive a model for the signal-to-interference-plus-noise ratio (SINR) in a SCFD-based cellular system with imperfect self-interference cancellation. Furthermore, given a set of uplink and downlink quality of service requirements, we answer the following two fundamental questions. First, is this set achievable in the SCFD-based cellular system? Second, if the given set is achievable, what is the optimal achieving policy? To that end, we provide a unified model for the SCFD-based cellular system, and give insights in the matrix of interference channel gains. Simulation results suggest that depending on the locations of the users, a combination of full-duplex and half-duplex modes over the whole network is more favourable policy
Advanced antenna techniques and high order sectorization with novel network t...ijwmn
Mobile operators commonly use macro cells with traditional wide beam antennas for wider coverage in the
cell, but future capacity demands cannot be achieved by using them only. It is required to achieve maximum
practical capacity from macro cells by employing higher order sectorization and by utilizing all possible
antenna solutions including smart antennas. This paper presents enhanced tessellation for 6-sector sites
and proposes novel layout for 12-sector sites. The main target of this paper is to compare the performance
of conventional wide beam antenna, switched beam smart antenna, adaptive beam antenna and different
network layouts in terms of offering better received signal quality and user throughput. Splitting macro cell
into smaller micro or pico cells can improve the capacity of network, but this paper highlights the
importance of higher order sectorization and advance antenna techniques to attain high Signal to
Interference plus Noise Ratio (SINR), along with improved network capacity. Monte Carlo simulations at
system level were done for Dual Cell High Speed Downlink Packet Access (DC-HSDPA) technology with
multiple (five) users per Transmission Time Interval (TTI) at different Intersite Distance (ISD). The
obtained results validate and estimate the gain of using smart antennas and higher order sectorization with
proposed network layout.
Design of time division multiplexing/wavelength division multiplexing passiv...IJECEIAES
This paper presents the design of time division multiplexing-wavelength division multiplexing-passive optical network (TDM-WDM PON). In this design, the current TDM PON is incorporated with the proposed WDM-PON in order to design a high-capacity network with lower loss requirements. The design has been simulated using OptiSystem software. The upstream wavelength for WDM is between 1,530.334 to 1,542.142 nm while for TDM is 1,310 nm. The downstream wavelength for WDM is from 1,569.865 to 1,581.973 nm, while for TDM is 1,490 nm. Based on the result, it is found that the proposed network is capable to support up to 64 customers with a bit rate of 2.5 Gbps.
Analysis of System Capacity and Spectral Efficiency of Fixed-Grid NetworkIJCNCJournal
In this article, the performance of a fixed grid network is examined for various modulation formats to estimate the system's capacity and spectral efficiency. The optical In-phase Quadrature Modulator (IQM) structure is used to build a fixed grid network modulation, and the homodyne detection approach is used for the receiver. Data multiplexing is accomplished using the Polarization Division Multiplexed (PDM) technology. 100 Gbps, 150 Gbps, and 200 Gbps data rates are transmitted under these circumstances utilizing various modulation formats. Various pre-processing and signal recovery steps are explained by using modern digital signal processing systems. The achieved spectrum efficiencies for PM-QPSK, PM-8 QAM, and PM-16 QAM, respectively, were 2, 3, and 4 (bits/s)/Hz. Different modulation like PM-QPSK, PM-8-QAM, and PM-16-QAM each has system capacities of 8-9, 12-13.5, and 16-18 Tbps and it reaches transmission distances of 3000, 1300, and 700 kilometers with acceptable Bit Error Rate (BER≤ 2× 10-3) respectively. Peak optical power for received signal detection and full width at half maximum is noted for the different modulations under a fixed grind network.
Analysis of System Capacity and Spectral Efficiency of Fixed-Grid NetworkIJCNCJournal
In this article, the performance of a fixed grid network is examined for various modulation formats to estimate the system's capacity and spectral efficiency. The optical In-phase Quadrature Modulator (IQM) structure is used to build a fixed grid network modulation, and the homodyne detection approach is used for the receiver. Data multiplexing is accomplished using the Polarization Division Multiplexed (PDM) technology. 100 Gbps, 150 Gbps, and 200 Gbps data rates are transmitted under these circumstances utilizing various modulation formats. Various pre-processing and signal recovery steps are explained by using modern digital signal processing systems. The achieved spectrum efficiencies for PM-QPSK, PM-8 QAM, and PM-16 QAM, respectively, were 2, 3, and 4 (bits/s)/Hz. Different modulation like PM-QPSK, PM-8-QAM, and PM-16-QAM each has system capacities of 8-9, 12-13.5, and 16-18 Tbps and it reaches transmission distances of 3000, 1300, and 700 kilometers with acceptable Bit Error Rate (BER≤ 2× 10-3) respectively. Peak optical power for received signal detection and full width at half maximum is noted for the different modulations under a fixed grind network.
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Dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM): A Review Kamal Pradhan
it is clear that as we approach the 21st century the remarkable revolution in information services has
permeated our society. This rapid growth of information technology has led to new services hungry for transmission
capacity. Communication, which in the past was confined to narrowband voice signals, now demands a high quality
visual, audio, and data context for services such as Voice over-Internet protocol (VoIP), video streaming,
broadcasting of TV programmes, high-speed file sharing, E-commerce and E-Governance need a transmission
medium with very high bandwidth capabilities for handling vast amounts of information. The telecommunications
industry, however, is struggling to keep pace with these changes. Earlier predictions were made that current fiber
capacities would be adequate for our needs into the next century but they have been proven wrong but these fiber-
optics, with its comparatively infinite bandwidth and by employing the latest multiplexing technique, i.e. Dense
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) has proven to be the solution.
ENERGY EFFICIENCY OF MIMO COOPERATIVE NETWORKS WITH ENERGY HARVESTING SENSOR ...ijasuc
This paper addresses the maximizing network lifetime problem in wireless sensor networks (WSNs) taking
into account the total Symbol Error rate (SER) at destination. Therefore, efficient power management is
needed for extend network lifetime. Our approach consists to provide the optimal transmission power
using the orthogonal multiple access channels between each sensor. In order to deeply study the
properties of our approach, firstly, the simple case is considered; the information sensed by the source
node passes by a single relay before reaching the destination node. Secondly, global case is studied; the
information passes by several relays. We consider, in the previous both cases, that the batteries are nonrechargeable. Thirdly, we spread our work the case where the batteries are rechargeable with unlimited
storage capacity. In all three cases, we suppose that Maximum Ratio Combining (MRC) is used as a
detector, and Amplify and Forward (AF) as a relaying strategy. Simulation results show the viability of
our approach which the network lifetime is extended of more than 70.72%when the batteries are non
rechargeable and 100.51% when the batteries are rechargeable in comparison with other traditional
method.
ENERGY EFFICIENCY OF MIMO COOPERATIVE NETWORKS WITH ENERGY HARVESTING SENSOR ...ijasuc
This paper addresses the maximizing network lifetime problem in wireless sensor networks (WSNs) taking
into account the total Symbol Error rate (SER) at destination. Therefore, efficient power management is
needed for extend network lifetime. Our approach consists to provide the optimal transmission power
using the orthogonal multiple access channels between each sensor. In order to deeply study the
properties of our approach, firstly, the simple case is considered; the information sensed by the source
node passes by a single relay before reaching the destination node. Secondly, global case is studied; the
information passes by several relays. We consider, in the previous both cases, that the batteries are nonrechargeable. Thirdly, we spread our work the case where the batteries are rechargeable with unlimited
storage capacity. In all three cases, we suppose that Maximum Ratio Combining (MRC) is used as a
detector, and Amplify and Forward (AF) as a relaying strategy. Simulation results show the viability of
our approach which the network lifetime is extended of more than 70.72%when the batteries are non
rechargeable and 100.51% when the batteries are rechargeable in comparison with other traditional
method.
Fuzzy based clustering and energy efficientIJCNCJournal
Underwater Wireless Sensor Network (UWSN) is a particular kind of sensor networks which is
characterized by using acoustic channels for communication. UWSN is challenged by great issues specially
the energy supply of sensor node which can be wasted rapidly by several factors. The most proposed
routing protocols for terrestrial sensor networks are not adequate for UWSN, thus new design of routing
protocols must be adapted to this constrain. In this paper we propose two new clustering algorithms based
on Fuzzy C-Means mechanisms. In the first proposition, the cluster head is elected initially based on the
closeness to the center of the cluster, then the node having the higher residual energy elects itself as a
cluster head. All non-cluster head nodes transmit sensed data to the cluster head. This latter performs data
aggregation and transmits the data directly to the base station. The second algorithm uses the same
principle in forming clusters and electing cluster heads but operates in multi-hop mode to forward data
from cluster heads to the underwater sink (uw-sink). Furthermore the two proposed algorithms are tested
for static and dynamic deployment. Simulation results demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed
algorithms resulting in an extension of the network lifetime.
Improving Energy Efficiency in Optical NetworksIJEEE
This paper presents an energy saving technique for optical networks without loss of dignity of Quality of service. This paper emphasis on the energy minimization of technologies in optical network. One simple method toconsume energy is to switched off an unused element, so the power consumption cuts by around 20% and network resources saved by 29%.
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Fundamentals of Electric Drives and its applications.pptx
Using Wavelength Division Multiplexing for Protection Applications
1.
101
Summary
This paper reports on an experimental investigation that
uses coarse or dense wavelength division multiplexing
(CWDM, DWDM) for applications in high-speed
traveling-wave protection. This paper documents the
performance, opportunities, and pitfalls associated with
this application and outlines practical strategies for the
seamless integration of protection systems with the
latest generation of optical transport network (OTN)
technologies.
1. Introduction
Power system protection typically operates
autonomously, with communications-based schemes
historically reserved only to protect the most critical
transmission assets. Communications bandwidth and the
cost associated with providing it has for many decades
forced power system protection engineers to economize
on communications resources.
Communications-based protection scheme deployments
started with analog pilot wire, which sent current
transformer secondary signals over a span of several
kilometers. Pilot wire schemes evolved rapidly,
spanning ever-increasing distances. Power line carrier
technology, microwave links, and eventually time-
division multiplexing (TDM) channels, such as
synchronous optical network (SONET) and synchronous
digital hierarchy (SDH), came next. They enabled the
deployment of full segregated digital phase differential
schemes (ANSI Device #87), as illustrated in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Differential line protection example (87L).
The Internet-driven data deluge followed, forcing
communications systems to carry ever-increasing
amounts of packet-based network traffic supplied by
Ethernet and multiprotocol label switching (MPLS).
Packet-based networks opened new interoperability
challenges while simultaneously creating new
opportunities to improve the overall quality of service
[1].
The latest generation of ultra-high-speed (UHS)
transmission line protective relays has recently raised
the bar by introducing time-domain protection elements,
traveling-wave fault location, high-resolution event
recording, time-coherent MHz-level sampling, and
current traveling-wave-based differential protection
(TW87 element).
Without diving into a discussion about whether a
dedicated TW87 fiber-optic channel is economically
justified, it is sufficient to note that the sustained data
bandwidth consumed by continuously transmitting
6 analog measurements (3 voltages and 3 currents)
sampled one million times per second is on the order of
Using Wavelength Division Multiplexing for
Protection Applications
V. SKENDZIC*, N. FISCHER*, J. SYKES†, D. DAY†, and K. FENNELLY†
*Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc.
†Pacific Gas and Electric Company
USA
KEYWORDS
Communications-based protection, wavelength division multiplexing, optical transport network.
* Veselin_Skendzic@selinc.com
2.
102
ency
tected path switching)
c
Travel time jitter and link asymmetry requirements are
the most difficult specifications to meet but are essential
for the UHS relays to maintain common time and
synchronize individual samples down to the nanosecond
level across hundreds of kilometers.
Synchronization could, in theory, be accomplished
using two sources of time, supplied independently to
the individual relays. Although simple, the independent
clock approach does not satisfy a key requirement that
UHS relay designers want to achieve, namely, that the
relay protection functions be insensitive to external
sources of time and any conceivable failure modes
associated with those sources. To meet this requirement,
relays rely on an internal time source (highly accurate,
temperature-compensated crystal oscillator). External
sources (when present) are strictly monitored, and if
acceptable, are used to discipline the phase of the 1 MHz
sampling clock.
When TW87 is enabled, a dedicated communications
link allows the two UHS relays to form a strong
synchronization bond.Aping-pong message exchange is
used to continuously measure the fiber-optic link delay
between the two relays. To maintain synchronization, it
is essential that the link between the relays provide a
constant transport delay.
While not a primary requirement, the TW87 scheme
channel latency needs to be in line with the UHS relay
operating speed because the excess channel delay directly
affects the operating time of the TW87 element.
145 Mbps. Data are transported using a 1 Gbps Ethernet
channel with small form-factor pluggable (SFP)
transceivers, allowing the user to match the required
transmission distance and control the associated light
wavelength. As practicing engineers will immediately
note, requesting a dedicated dark fiber channel for a
single protection service is guaranteed to cause major
interest in the communications department.
This paper (a shortened version of [2]) presents the
results of a UHS protective relay test using a dedicated
fiber-optic communications channel. The testing was
conducted at the Pacific Gas and Electric (PG&E) High
Performance Communications Technology Laboratory
in San Ramon, California. The test was performed using
the PG&E optical transport network (OTN) system,
which carried the required relay payload with ease.
The paper also raises several questions about the design
of future protection systems, revolving around the
realization that modern fiber-optic communications
systems have managed to exceed the communications
bandwidth typically requested by present day protective
relay designs by as much as 5 to 9 orders of magnitude.
2. Dedicated Communications
Channel Requirements
A UHS transmission line relay TW87 communications
linkisadedicated,privatepoint-to-pointfiberconnection
between two relays and has the following requirements:
ernet physical layer
tandard SFP module-based fiber interface
me jitter that is below 25 ns
is below 100 ns
Table 1 Point-to-Point Communications Link Options
Transport Technology Acceptability Comment
Single-mo pair Yes fy for sole use by protection
CWDM Yes
DWDM Yes
OTN Yes
SONET / SDH No Jitter
Ethernet network No Jitter
MPLS No Jitter
(SDN-based) Ethernet Sometimes Affected by device construction and network setup
3.
103
3. Optical Communications
Network at PG&E
PG&E is an investor-owned electric utility company
serving over 5.4 million electric and 4.3 million gas
customers. Headquartered in San Francisco, California,
PG&E serves a territory of over 70,000 square miles
in northern and central California. In addition to its
extensive electric and gas networks, PG&E also operates
a large optical network linking virtually all major high-
voltage substations in its territory. PG&E’s network
uses high-quality single-mode fibers typically deployed
along the high-voltage transmission line right of way
using optical ground wire (OPGW) technology.
PG&E’s communications network uses state-of-the-art
OTN technology [3], with 61 nodes already in service.
Ten additional nodes are in the works at the northern
edge of the service territory, promising full network
coverage in the near future. PG&E’s utility neighbor to
the north, Bonneville Power Administration (BPA), is
in the process of commissioning a similar OTN system.
Similarly, PG&E’s neighbor to the south, Southern
California Edison, operates an extensive fiber-optic
network with a long history of offering fiber-optic
services on the open market.
4. OTN Technology Primer
OTN is a tightly coupled set of technologies aimed at
providing transparent, multiservice transport for a wide
variety of packet and TDM-based technologies. OTN
scaleswellbeyond100Gbpspertransportedtributaryand
includes a framework for efficient wavelength division
control, reconfigurable optical add-drop multiplexing
(ROADM), optical amplification, centralized network
management, and all optical long-haul transport
capabilities. OTN is highly configurable and works hand
in hand with the latest generation of SDN.
As an optical transport technology, OTN should be
seen as a large number of centrally managed point-to-
point links that can be deployed at will. DWDM and the
advanced modulation schemes in use today allow the
OTN technology to approach the presently known limits
of the capacity of single-mode fiber, as shown in Table 2.
Using the outlined point-to-point link requirements, a
list of communications technologies that can be used to
establish the link is shown in Table 1. Using a pair of
single-modefibersisthesimplestsolution.Apairoffibers
is required because normally one fiber is used for data
transmission and the other fiber is used for data reception.
The use of wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) is
much more common in the industry. In WDM, tightly
controlled wavelengths of light (colors) are used to
transport multiple communications links over the same
fiber. Simpler systems use coarse WDM (CWDM) with
up to 16 channels available in the 1,310 nm and 1,550
nm bands. More advanced systems use dense WDM
(DWDM) with 44 or 88 discrete channels allocated in
the 1,550 nm band. This band has the lowest attenuation
and leverages the availability of Erbium-doped fiber
amplifiers (EDFAs), thus supporting long-distance
transmission. Applications using any of the three
intended technologies are shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Intended relay application (two systems shown side by side).
OTN is the latest generation of communications
technologies, intended primarily for metropolitan
aggregation and long-distance core networks. OTN
provides a transparent digital wrapper intended for
the end-to-end transport of lower-speed network
technologies, such as SONET, SDH, Carrier Ethernet,
MPLS, storage area networks, and so on, and it is
currently a preferred access method for large data
centers.
SONET, SDH, Ethernet, and MPLS cannot currently
be used to meet the TW87 link requirements. SDN can
in some cases be configured to provide sufficiently
low jitter, but this performance remains manufacturer-
specific and design-dependent.
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more bits from each channel, depending on the rate of
the tributary).Actual rate management is more complex,
with multiple options available to the network engineer,
but it is important to note that fine granularity (bit by
bit) of such multiplexing allows the subtended systems
to maintain their time and frequency synchronization
requirements.
OTN systems use forward error correction (FEC),
which results in slightly higher rates by the time fully
multiplexed electrical signals are delivered to their
corresponding modulators and/or WDM channels. FEC
provides an additional layer of robustness, allowing the
optical transport specialist to monitor the bit error rates
(BERs) for each wavelength and proactively adjust the
system parameters before the errors become visible to
the end customers.
The summary above barely scratches the surface of OTN
network capabilities. For additional details, interested
readers are directed to [3] and the easily accessible
information on the Internet.
5. San Ramon Laboratory Test
To verify the PG&E network’s ability to transport the
UHS relays’TW87 messages, a live equipment test was
conducted at the PG&E San Ramon Communications
SystemsTestLaboratory.Initialconversationsamongthe
engineers involved in the project indicated a high level
of confidence on the side of the PG&E communications
team, caution on the side of the PG&E protection team,
and major reservations on the side of the relay design
team.
The optical fiber capacities provided in Table 2
assume the use of DWDM with 88 or more individual
wavelengths. Each wavelength is modulated using
binaryphaseshiftkeying(BPSK),quadraturephaseshift
keying (QPSK), or quadrature amplitude modulation
(QAM) with a constellation of 8, 16, or more symbols
(8QAM, 16QAM). For modulation rates above 40 Gbps
per wavelength, it is also customary to use polarization
multiplexing (PM).
Use of multiple wavelengths provides guaranteed
(physical)separationoftrafficbetweendifferentstreams,
while the high transmission speeds make it possible
to transparently encapsulate legacy rates and services
(such as MPLS or SONET/SDH). OTN transport has
standardized the rates shown in Table 3 (applied per
DWDM wavelength).
Rates are carefully selected to allow easy mapping of
various legacy channels, for example, Gigabit Ethernet
or OC-48 (2.48 Gbps) SONET services. Slightly larger
data rates make it possible to transparently transfer
channel timing while at the same time supporting
frequency tolerance range and the clock jitter mask
requirements of the legacy channel.
Although supporting lower rates (such as ODU0), OTN
gets in the zone at 10 Gbps or above. For example, at
those rates, the ODU2 10.037 Gbps channel can be
used to multiplex together one Gigabit Ethernet LAN
tributary, one OC-48 (2.48 Gbps) SONET channel,
and 5 MPLS channels supplied using 1 Gbps Ethernet
ports. All of these tributaries are transported “one bit at
a time” (in a round robin fashion, sending one, two, or
Table 2 Single-Mode Optical Fiber Capacity as a Function of Distance
Capacity (Tbps) Modulation Typical Distance (km)
4 to 7 PM-BPSK 5,000
8 to 15 PM-QPSK 3,000
12 to 21 PM-8QAM 1,200
16 to 27 PM-16QAM 500
Table 3 Standardized OTN Rates
Signal Approximate Data Rate
ODU0 1.244 Gbps
ODU1 2.498 Gbps
ODU2 10.037 Gbps
ODU3 40.319 Gbps
ODU4 104.79 Gbps
ODUflex Any configured rate
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alien wavelength approach still provides much greater
efficiency than using a dedicated dark fiber pair (15+
Terabit resource).
A detailed diagram showing the alien wavelength test
setup is shown in Figure 4.
Asecond test involved the use of ODU2 multiplexing. In
this test, a 1 Gbps link used by the UHS relays becomes
a simple tributary to the ODU2 (10 Gbps) stream, with
additionalservices(includingPG&ESONETandMPLS
networks) being multiplexed in at the same time. The
OTNmultiplexingapproachprovidesthebestbandwidth
utilization, with a 1 Gbps link being provisioned to
consume a 1 Gbps resource.
A detailed diagram showing the ODU2 test setup is
provided in Figure 5. The results for the two tests are
shown in Table 4.
The teams agreed to conduct two independent tests.
The first test would use DWDM-capable SFPs plugged
directly into the relays. The selected wavelength would
then be brought directly into the PG&E OTN platform
optical plane using the “alien wavelength” interface
module. This approach guaranteed that the UHS relay
would have direct access to the optical fiber for the given
wavelength. The OTN system hardware used for the test
is shown in Figure 3.
An alien wavelength card is normally used when the
traffic from a neighboring carrier needs to traverse the
network without interference. Allocating an entire alien
wavelength to a single relay channel in effect means
committing a resource with a 100+ Gbps theoretical
capacity. In the PG&E network case, resource
allocation is slightly less critical because the individual
wavelengths are typically modulated at 10 Gbps. The
Figure 3. OTN system used during the test.
Figure 4.Alien wavelength test setup.
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106
latency caused by the FEC system. This additional
latency was expected and is fully controlled by the OTN
network engineer.
Available settings and the associated end-to-end delays
are shown in Table 5.
As the results show, the UHS relay link was successfully
established in both cases. The alien wavelength test
provided the measurement of the actual fiber length
connecting the two OTN systems in the lab. The jitter
measurement shows that there was no detectable jitter
(< 8 ns). The ODU2 multiplexing test shows additional
Table 4 OTN Test Results
Test Error Correction Measured Latency (µs) Measured Jitter (ns)
Alien wavelength None 1.6 <8
ODU2 tributary EFEC 60.8 <8
Figure 5. ODU2 multiplexing test setup.
Table 5 FEC andAssociated Transport Latency
Line-Side FEC Tributary Rate (GHz) Line Rate (GHz) Latency (µs)
None 1.25 10.709 17
RS FEC 1.25 10.709 23.5
EFEC 1.25 10.709 59
EFEC2 1.25 10.709 157
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The exact method for distributing time throughout the
network core is less important. It can be proprietary
or standards-based as long as the time distribution is
reliable and unconditionally cybersecure. One such
system based on SONET transport is described in [4].
SONET and SDH are especially convenient for this use
because the system cannot operate without establishing
a strict synchronous connection with the neighboring
nodes.
The system described in [4] is a great example of the
time distribution service that demonstrates the level of
performance that needs to be provided by any network
core. The exact implementation is less important but
applies equally well to the OTN network core and the
edge networks emanating from that core (e.g., Ethernet,
MPLS).
When considering OTN and maximum capacity limits
forasingle-modeopticalfiber,itisimportanttonotethat
power system protection and control applications do not
generate enough traffic to fully load or justify the OTN
system. Present day protection and control needs are
easily met with a single OTN wavelength. Remaining
OTN capacity can be leased or used for other purposes.
7. Conclusion
While not every electric power utility can be expected
to switch to OTN technology in the near future, the
PG&E and BPA examples can be seen as forerunners
of things to come over the next decade. The authors are
very excited about the potential of OTN technology and
future optical technology advancements.
Relay design engineers are finally finding themselves in
an environment with virtually no bandwidth constraints,
making it possible to exchange the optimal amount of
data required for a given protection application. This
meansmuchgreaterpenetrationofdifferentialprotection
schemes, with virtually all key resources protected using
some type of optical communications.
8. Acknowledgements
The authors would like to extend special gratitude to the
PG&E protection engineering team, Davis Erwin and
Monica Anderson, who are instrumental in successfully
evaluating the latest protection technologies at PG&E.
Theexactmeaningofthevariousoptions(RSFES,EFEC,
and so on) is beyond the scope of this paper, but can be
foundin[3].Whatmattersisthecloseagreementbetween
the expected and the measured results of the test.
6. Relay Design Opportunities
Asexplainedintheintroductionandclearlydemonstrated
during the test, modern utility communications systems
are more than capable of satisfying the protection system
data communications needs.
Faced with the continuously evolving communications
capabilities, protection device designers are challenged
to use the latest Ethernet protocols while at the same
time having to support the legacy 64 kbps synchronous
interfaces.
Ethernet communications are especially convenient in
multiterminal applications in which a single relay needs
to exchange data with multiple peers. In order to support
mission-critical protection applications, an Ethernet
network must be purposefully engineered and capable of
providingguaranteedqualityofservice.General-purpose
Ethernet networks are inadequate for this purpose.
Instead, fully configured networks must be used, with
key technologies including SDN, Ethernet pipe transport
over SONET, and time-sensitive networking (TSN).
Packet-based networks are typically associated with
queuing delays and an inability to control transport
delay variations. As long as the total latency is low
enough to meet the protection system requirements,
these problems can be solved by adding a network-based
time-synchronization service, such as Precision Time
Protocol (PTP, also known as IEEE 1588) or one of its
profiles (IEC 61850-9-3 or IEEE C37.238).
Ethernet-based protection schemes work as long as
the Ethernet network can guarantee that the same
time-synchronization signal is delivered to all devices
that can communicate with each other, meaning time
synchronization and communications should always
work in tandem. To meet this goal, time synchronization
must become a guaranteed core network service.
Traceability of the network time source to Coordinated
Universal Time (UTC) is less important, provided the
same time is being distributed to all communicating
devices.