Black truffle is a mycorrhizal fungus that grows underground in association with tree roots. Several truffle species have commercial value, including Tuber melanosporum (black truffle). Black truffles grow naturally in Mediterranean regions on limy soils under holm oaks and other trees. Successful cultivation requires selecting appropriate host trees, soil characteristics, climate conditions, and cultural practices like pruning, weeding, and irrigation. Black truffles can be a profitable crop, with harvest prices from 200-850 euros per kilogram.
Truffles are fungi that grow symbiotically with the roots of trees like various oak species. There are several species of truffles but the most valuable commercially are the black truffle, winter truffle, summer truffle, and Burgundy truffle. Truffles prefer limestone soils in somewhat hilly Mediterranean areas with moderate rainfall and temperatures. When establishing an orchard for truffle cultivation, factors like tree spacing, previous crops, and soil preparation must be considered. Truffle farming can be economically viable, with average production values ranging from €19,424 to €66,972 per hectare and profitability timeframes of 10 years or more.
Truffles are underground fungi that grow naturally in forests in Europe and Australia. There are two main types - white and black truffles. Australia has become a major producer of black truffles, with over 13 tons produced last season worth $8 million at the farm gate. Truffles can also be cultivated by inoculating host trees like oak with truffle spores. Several US states have had success growing European black and Burgundy truffles commercially. Truffle cultivation requires establishing orchards of host trees and controlling other fungi to ensure the truffle mycelium grows successfully. European white truffles can sell for over $3,600 per pound, making them the most expensive food in the world. Production and demand for truffles is
Este documento describe varias plagas que afectan el cultivo de cítricos, incluyendo ácaros, queresas y piojos. Explica la morfología, biología, daños y controles de cada plaga. También reconoce la importancia de los enemigos naturales y recomienda el uso de controles biológicos y aceites de petróleo para controlar plagas de manera segura y sostenible.
El documento habla sobre los umbrales de daño económico en la agricultura. Explica que el umbral de daño es la densidad poblacional de una plaga por encima de la cual se produce un daño económico en el cultivo. Describe tres tipos de plagas: clave, ocasionales y potenciales. También destaca la importancia del monitoreo para determinar los umbrales de acción y controlar las plagas de manera efectiva y sostenible.
This document summarizes several common diseases that affect peppers, including the causal pathogens, symptoms, and conditions that promote disease development. Some of the major diseases discussed are anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum capsici, powdery mildew caused by Leveillula taurica, bacterial spot caused by Xanthomonas compestris pv. vesicatoria, and bacterial wilt caused by Ralstonia solani. Many of these diseases are spread through infected seeds, transplants, soil, debris or water and prefer warm, wet conditions. Several viruses are also discussed that are transmitted by various insect vectors like aphids, whiteflies or thrips.
El documento describe las diferentes partes y clasificaciones de los tallos y las hojas de las plantas. Explica que los tallos se pueden clasificar por su tamaño, hábitat, consistencia, duración y forma biológica. También describe varios tipos especializados de tallos como zarcillos, espinas y rizomas. Las hojas se clasifican por su persistencia, origen, inserción, nervaduras, pubescencia, borde, forma del limbo y forma del ápice.
This document discusses the Ginkgo biloba tree. It begins with the systematic position and 27 synonym names for Ginkgo. It then describes the habit and habitat of Ginkgo, preferring polluted, temperate regions with annual precipitation of 1767 mm. The document outlines the structure of Ginkgo, including its stem, bark, leaves, and reproductive parts. It provides detailed descriptions of the male and female structures and the pollination and fertilization process, including the unique swimming sperm cells of Ginkgo. The document concludes with an image showing the ripened fleshy seed coat and development of Ginkgo seeds.
This document discusses several major and minor insect pests that affect cucurbit crops. The four major pests covered are the red pumpkin beetle, cucurbits stink bug, pumpkin fruit fly, and spotted beetle. For each, details are provided on identification, life cycle, damage caused, and management strategies. The red pumpkin beetle feeds on plant parts both above and below ground, with all life stages causing damage. Management involves deep plowing, flooding, early sowing, and applying insecticides to soil. The cucurbits stink bug feeds on foliage and stems, with nymphs and adults both damaging plants. Management focuses on sanitation and using parasitoids and insecticide sprays. The
Truffles are fungi that grow symbiotically with the roots of trees like various oak species. There are several species of truffles but the most valuable commercially are the black truffle, winter truffle, summer truffle, and Burgundy truffle. Truffles prefer limestone soils in somewhat hilly Mediterranean areas with moderate rainfall and temperatures. When establishing an orchard for truffle cultivation, factors like tree spacing, previous crops, and soil preparation must be considered. Truffle farming can be economically viable, with average production values ranging from €19,424 to €66,972 per hectare and profitability timeframes of 10 years or more.
Truffles are underground fungi that grow naturally in forests in Europe and Australia. There are two main types - white and black truffles. Australia has become a major producer of black truffles, with over 13 tons produced last season worth $8 million at the farm gate. Truffles can also be cultivated by inoculating host trees like oak with truffle spores. Several US states have had success growing European black and Burgundy truffles commercially. Truffle cultivation requires establishing orchards of host trees and controlling other fungi to ensure the truffle mycelium grows successfully. European white truffles can sell for over $3,600 per pound, making them the most expensive food in the world. Production and demand for truffles is
Este documento describe varias plagas que afectan el cultivo de cítricos, incluyendo ácaros, queresas y piojos. Explica la morfología, biología, daños y controles de cada plaga. También reconoce la importancia de los enemigos naturales y recomienda el uso de controles biológicos y aceites de petróleo para controlar plagas de manera segura y sostenible.
El documento habla sobre los umbrales de daño económico en la agricultura. Explica que el umbral de daño es la densidad poblacional de una plaga por encima de la cual se produce un daño económico en el cultivo. Describe tres tipos de plagas: clave, ocasionales y potenciales. También destaca la importancia del monitoreo para determinar los umbrales de acción y controlar las plagas de manera efectiva y sostenible.
This document summarizes several common diseases that affect peppers, including the causal pathogens, symptoms, and conditions that promote disease development. Some of the major diseases discussed are anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum capsici, powdery mildew caused by Leveillula taurica, bacterial spot caused by Xanthomonas compestris pv. vesicatoria, and bacterial wilt caused by Ralstonia solani. Many of these diseases are spread through infected seeds, transplants, soil, debris or water and prefer warm, wet conditions. Several viruses are also discussed that are transmitted by various insect vectors like aphids, whiteflies or thrips.
El documento describe las diferentes partes y clasificaciones de los tallos y las hojas de las plantas. Explica que los tallos se pueden clasificar por su tamaño, hábitat, consistencia, duración y forma biológica. También describe varios tipos especializados de tallos como zarcillos, espinas y rizomas. Las hojas se clasifican por su persistencia, origen, inserción, nervaduras, pubescencia, borde, forma del limbo y forma del ápice.
This document discusses the Ginkgo biloba tree. It begins with the systematic position and 27 synonym names for Ginkgo. It then describes the habit and habitat of Ginkgo, preferring polluted, temperate regions with annual precipitation of 1767 mm. The document outlines the structure of Ginkgo, including its stem, bark, leaves, and reproductive parts. It provides detailed descriptions of the male and female structures and the pollination and fertilization process, including the unique swimming sperm cells of Ginkgo. The document concludes with an image showing the ripened fleshy seed coat and development of Ginkgo seeds.
This document discusses several major and minor insect pests that affect cucurbit crops. The four major pests covered are the red pumpkin beetle, cucurbits stink bug, pumpkin fruit fly, and spotted beetle. For each, details are provided on identification, life cycle, damage caused, and management strategies. The red pumpkin beetle feeds on plant parts both above and below ground, with all life stages causing damage. Management involves deep plowing, flooding, early sowing, and applying insecticides to soil. The cucurbits stink bug feeds on foliage and stems, with nymphs and adults both damaging plants. Management focuses on sanitation and using parasitoids and insecticide sprays. The
Papaya mealy bug, an important insect pest which has a vast potential to harm the crop has been briefly discussed here. And further the control measures suitable for it are also mentioned
Sugar cane is a tall perennial grass that is cultivated for its sucrose content. It originated in India and was initially used for medicinal purposes and religious ceremonies before it was refined into crystals for trade. Today, sugar cane is one of the world's largest crops by production quantity and Brazil is the largest producer. While sugar provides little nutritional value, it is widely used to sweeten foods and beverages and Americans consume nearly a pound of sugar every 2.5 days on average. The cultivation of sugar cane can impact the environment through soil erosion and agrochemical use, but better management practices like reducing burning can improve soil quality over the long term.
The document summarizes key information about the palm family (Palmae/Arecaceae). It discusses the systematic position, distribution, vegetative and floral characteristics, economic importance, and examples of common palm plants. Some key points are:
- The palm family includes over 3000 species found in tropical, subtropical and warm temperate regions worldwide.
- Palms exhibit a wide range of growth habits from shrubs to large trees. They have unbranched stems, terminal clusters of large leaves, and fibrous root systems.
- Flowers are usually unisexual, trimerous and borne on large branched inflorescences. Fruits vary from berries to drupes.
Este patógeno fue descubierto en 1895 en Surinam y causa la enfermedad conocida como Escoba de Bruja en cacaotales. Se transmite principalmente a través de basidiosporas producidas en basidiocarpos que se forman sobre tejido infectado. Los síntomas incluyen hipertrofia de brotes, marchitamiento foliar, y lesiones en frutos. Se controla utilizando prácticas culturales como la remoción de tejido infectado, y fungicidas aplicados de forma preventiva.
This document provides an introduction to melissopalynology, which is the study of botanical and geographic origins of honey through microscopic pollen analysis. It discusses honey and nectar formation by bees, the types of honey, honey bees species, bee pasturage plants, chemical and physical properties of honey. It also covers deterioration of honey through fermentation or heating, potential heavy metal contamination, adulteration risks, and other bee products beyond honey like bee venom, bee bread, royal jelly, propolis, beeswax, mead, bee pollen. The document emphasizes the importance of bees as Albert Einstein is quoted saying that without bees, humans would only have four years left to live.
Este documento describe varias enfermedades que afectan al ají, incluyendo sus causas, síntomas y métodos de control. Entre las enfermedades descritas se encuentran la ceniza causada por el hongo Uncinula necator, la podredumbre gris causada por Botrytis cinérea, y la tristeza del pimiento causada por el hongo Phytophthora capsici. El documento también proporciona información sobre la taxonomía del ají y variedades cultivadas.
Rutaceae
CITRUS OR RUE FAMILY
Climate
Citrus grow well in subtropical climates
They can even grow in deserts (Arizona)
Drought tolerant (similar needs to cactus)
Somewhat cold tolerant (can withstand some freezing)
Source of Medicine
Aegle mameoles is used as laxative & in treatment of Dysentry
Pilocarpus source of drug Pilocarpin usedto treat Glucomma.
Peganum hamala seeds give in treatment of Asthama.
Cusparia febrifuga bark is used in treatment of Malaria.
Murraya koeniigii used in treatment of intestinal disorders.
It contains many ornamental plants & some plants are used as contaminents.
- Ginkgo biloba, commonly known as the maidenhair tree, is the only living species in the division Ginkgophyta.
- It is a large deciduous tree that can grow up to 30 meters tall. G. biloba has existed for about 150 million years and is considered a living fossil.
- G. biloba is dioecious, with separate male and female plants. The male plants produce pollen cones and the female plants produce seeds. Its geographic distribution includes southeast China, Japan, and some botanical gardens in India, North America, and Europe where it is cultivated as an ornamental plant.
The document discusses coconut breeding and improvement. It describes the classification of coconut varieties into tall and dwarf types based on growth characteristics. Mass selection and hybridization techniques are used for coconut breeding. Important hybrid combinations tried include dwarf x dwarf, tall x dwarf, and tall x tall crosses. Tall x dwarf hybrids exhibit heterosis and possess desirable traits like early bearing and higher productivity.
The Lesser Grain Borer (Rhyzopertha dominica) is a small brown to black beetle that damages wheat, corn, rice, and millet. Both the adult beetles and cream-colored C-shaped larvae feed inside and on grain kernels, leaving only dust and thin shells. They can completely develop within kernels, producing large amounts of frass. Proper storage and an economic threshold of 1 insect per quart of grain guides control efforts focused on the aerosol insecticide DFORCE applied to where adults and larvae reside.
Este documento trata sobre el manejo agronómico del ají paprika. Describe las condiciones climáticas ideales para el cultivo, la preparación del terreno, la siembra, las labores culturales como el riego y la fertilización, y el control de plagas y enfermedades que afectan al cultivo. Entre las plagas se encuentran gusanos de tierra, mosca blanca, perforadores de flores y frutos, y caracha. Entre las enfermedades se describen la chupadera, daños tardíos por hongos,
Este documento proporciona una clasificación y descripción general de las malezas. Se clasifican las malezas de acuerdo con su ciclo de vida (anuales, bianuales, perennes), tipo de reproducción (sexual, asexual), morfología (hoja ancha, hoja fina), y hábito de crecimiento (erectas, rastreras, trepadoras). También describe algunas características biológicas clave de las malezas como su capacidad de competencia, dispersión y persistencia. Finalmente, ofrece ejemplos detall
La familia Brassicaceae incluye hierbas anuales o perennes con hojas alternas o pinnadas, flores perfectas en racimos o solitarias con 4 sépalos y 4 pétalos en disposición de cruz, y frutos en silicuas o silículas. Incluye importantes cultivos como el repollo, coliflor, brócoli, colza y mostaza, y se distribuye principalmente en regiones templadas.
This document discusses insect monitoring techniques like pheromone and light traps. Pheromone traps use sex pheromones to attract specific insect species and are useful for tracking populations over time. Light traps attract a variety of insects. Data from these traps is used for pest forecasting through phenology models, which predict development timing based on temperature, and simulation models. The monitoring data and models help time management practices like pesticide applications and scouting.
The document provides an overview of integrated pest management (IPM) strategies for controlling pests in stored grain. It discusses sanitation, monitoring, non-toxic treatments like diatomaceous earth and cooling/heating, biological controls using beneficial insects, and other alternatives to pesticides. Traps, identification of pests, and decision support software can aid in monitoring. The strategies described aim to effectively control pests with minimal pesticide use.
Monitoring is a key part of integrated pest management. It involves regularly surveying crops to identify any pests, diseases, or weeds. This helps determine if control measures are needed. Monitoring methods include direct observation of pests on plants, using beating sheets to dislodge pests from plants, sweeping for insects, and trapping insects. Records of monitoring activities including the type and number of pests found help inform pest management decisions.
Gramineae (poaceae).it is the one of the largest plant familyAnand P P
poaceae or true grass is a monocotyledon family.the family consist mainly grasses.different varieties of grasses are present under the categories.one of the most advanced reproductive mechanisms are present in the family.
This document discusses key aspects of pesticide labels including the types of information provided. It begins by defining what a pesticide is and explaining the different names a pesticide can have. It then describes the four main sections of a label which provide product information, safety precautions, environmental information, and directions for use. Specific details covered include signal words, personal protective equipment, precautions, and proper storage and disposal. It emphasizes that the label must always be followed and that pesticide use inconsistent with the labeling is a violation of federal law.
award winning ppt on Pest of pulses by nageshNagesh sadili
This document discusses several minor pests that affect pulses:
- Green leafhoppers, papaya mealybug, thrips, pod bugs, leaf folders, and stem flies damage leaves, pods, and stems and can reduce crop yields. Management includes insecticide sprays and seed treatments.
- Termites, scales, blister beetles, and flower webbers feed on plant tissues and reduce crop quality. Control involves locating and destroying colonies, or applying insecticides.
- Other pests mentioned are leaf miners, leaf cutter bees, redgram bud weevil, and caterpillars that feed on leaves, buds, and flowers, potentially stunting plant growth. Management
The document summarizes the coniferous plant life found in the Lake Tahoe basin. It identifies the main conifer families of pine and cypress that are native to the area. Key pine species discussed include white fir, red fir, Jeffrey pine, and lodgepole pine. Incense-cedar is also examined as part of the cypress family. The importance of these conifers to the local ecosystem is addressed, as well as their evolutionary history and adaptations. Core samples were taken from trees to analyze growth patterns. Granite and volcanic rock formations are also briefly described.
The document summarizes the coniferous plant life found in the Lake Tahoe basin. It identifies the main conifer families of pine and cypress that are native to the area. Key pine species discussed include white fir, red fir, Jeffrey pine, and lodgepole pine. Incense-cedar is also examined as part of the cypress family. The importance of these conifers to the local ecosystem is addressed, as well as their evolutionary history and adaptations. Tree core samples were analyzed to determine tree ages and growth patterns. Granite and volcanic rock formations are also briefly described.
Papaya mealy bug, an important insect pest which has a vast potential to harm the crop has been briefly discussed here. And further the control measures suitable for it are also mentioned
Sugar cane is a tall perennial grass that is cultivated for its sucrose content. It originated in India and was initially used for medicinal purposes and religious ceremonies before it was refined into crystals for trade. Today, sugar cane is one of the world's largest crops by production quantity and Brazil is the largest producer. While sugar provides little nutritional value, it is widely used to sweeten foods and beverages and Americans consume nearly a pound of sugar every 2.5 days on average. The cultivation of sugar cane can impact the environment through soil erosion and agrochemical use, but better management practices like reducing burning can improve soil quality over the long term.
The document summarizes key information about the palm family (Palmae/Arecaceae). It discusses the systematic position, distribution, vegetative and floral characteristics, economic importance, and examples of common palm plants. Some key points are:
- The palm family includes over 3000 species found in tropical, subtropical and warm temperate regions worldwide.
- Palms exhibit a wide range of growth habits from shrubs to large trees. They have unbranched stems, terminal clusters of large leaves, and fibrous root systems.
- Flowers are usually unisexual, trimerous and borne on large branched inflorescences. Fruits vary from berries to drupes.
Este patógeno fue descubierto en 1895 en Surinam y causa la enfermedad conocida como Escoba de Bruja en cacaotales. Se transmite principalmente a través de basidiosporas producidas en basidiocarpos que se forman sobre tejido infectado. Los síntomas incluyen hipertrofia de brotes, marchitamiento foliar, y lesiones en frutos. Se controla utilizando prácticas culturales como la remoción de tejido infectado, y fungicidas aplicados de forma preventiva.
This document provides an introduction to melissopalynology, which is the study of botanical and geographic origins of honey through microscopic pollen analysis. It discusses honey and nectar formation by bees, the types of honey, honey bees species, bee pasturage plants, chemical and physical properties of honey. It also covers deterioration of honey through fermentation or heating, potential heavy metal contamination, adulteration risks, and other bee products beyond honey like bee venom, bee bread, royal jelly, propolis, beeswax, mead, bee pollen. The document emphasizes the importance of bees as Albert Einstein is quoted saying that without bees, humans would only have four years left to live.
Este documento describe varias enfermedades que afectan al ají, incluyendo sus causas, síntomas y métodos de control. Entre las enfermedades descritas se encuentran la ceniza causada por el hongo Uncinula necator, la podredumbre gris causada por Botrytis cinérea, y la tristeza del pimiento causada por el hongo Phytophthora capsici. El documento también proporciona información sobre la taxonomía del ají y variedades cultivadas.
Rutaceae
CITRUS OR RUE FAMILY
Climate
Citrus grow well in subtropical climates
They can even grow in deserts (Arizona)
Drought tolerant (similar needs to cactus)
Somewhat cold tolerant (can withstand some freezing)
Source of Medicine
Aegle mameoles is used as laxative & in treatment of Dysentry
Pilocarpus source of drug Pilocarpin usedto treat Glucomma.
Peganum hamala seeds give in treatment of Asthama.
Cusparia febrifuga bark is used in treatment of Malaria.
Murraya koeniigii used in treatment of intestinal disorders.
It contains many ornamental plants & some plants are used as contaminents.
- Ginkgo biloba, commonly known as the maidenhair tree, is the only living species in the division Ginkgophyta.
- It is a large deciduous tree that can grow up to 30 meters tall. G. biloba has existed for about 150 million years and is considered a living fossil.
- G. biloba is dioecious, with separate male and female plants. The male plants produce pollen cones and the female plants produce seeds. Its geographic distribution includes southeast China, Japan, and some botanical gardens in India, North America, and Europe where it is cultivated as an ornamental plant.
The document discusses coconut breeding and improvement. It describes the classification of coconut varieties into tall and dwarf types based on growth characteristics. Mass selection and hybridization techniques are used for coconut breeding. Important hybrid combinations tried include dwarf x dwarf, tall x dwarf, and tall x tall crosses. Tall x dwarf hybrids exhibit heterosis and possess desirable traits like early bearing and higher productivity.
The Lesser Grain Borer (Rhyzopertha dominica) is a small brown to black beetle that damages wheat, corn, rice, and millet. Both the adult beetles and cream-colored C-shaped larvae feed inside and on grain kernels, leaving only dust and thin shells. They can completely develop within kernels, producing large amounts of frass. Proper storage and an economic threshold of 1 insect per quart of grain guides control efforts focused on the aerosol insecticide DFORCE applied to where adults and larvae reside.
Este documento trata sobre el manejo agronómico del ají paprika. Describe las condiciones climáticas ideales para el cultivo, la preparación del terreno, la siembra, las labores culturales como el riego y la fertilización, y el control de plagas y enfermedades que afectan al cultivo. Entre las plagas se encuentran gusanos de tierra, mosca blanca, perforadores de flores y frutos, y caracha. Entre las enfermedades se describen la chupadera, daños tardíos por hongos,
Este documento proporciona una clasificación y descripción general de las malezas. Se clasifican las malezas de acuerdo con su ciclo de vida (anuales, bianuales, perennes), tipo de reproducción (sexual, asexual), morfología (hoja ancha, hoja fina), y hábito de crecimiento (erectas, rastreras, trepadoras). También describe algunas características biológicas clave de las malezas como su capacidad de competencia, dispersión y persistencia. Finalmente, ofrece ejemplos detall
La familia Brassicaceae incluye hierbas anuales o perennes con hojas alternas o pinnadas, flores perfectas en racimos o solitarias con 4 sépalos y 4 pétalos en disposición de cruz, y frutos en silicuas o silículas. Incluye importantes cultivos como el repollo, coliflor, brócoli, colza y mostaza, y se distribuye principalmente en regiones templadas.
This document discusses insect monitoring techniques like pheromone and light traps. Pheromone traps use sex pheromones to attract specific insect species and are useful for tracking populations over time. Light traps attract a variety of insects. Data from these traps is used for pest forecasting through phenology models, which predict development timing based on temperature, and simulation models. The monitoring data and models help time management practices like pesticide applications and scouting.
The document provides an overview of integrated pest management (IPM) strategies for controlling pests in stored grain. It discusses sanitation, monitoring, non-toxic treatments like diatomaceous earth and cooling/heating, biological controls using beneficial insects, and other alternatives to pesticides. Traps, identification of pests, and decision support software can aid in monitoring. The strategies described aim to effectively control pests with minimal pesticide use.
Monitoring is a key part of integrated pest management. It involves regularly surveying crops to identify any pests, diseases, or weeds. This helps determine if control measures are needed. Monitoring methods include direct observation of pests on plants, using beating sheets to dislodge pests from plants, sweeping for insects, and trapping insects. Records of monitoring activities including the type and number of pests found help inform pest management decisions.
Gramineae (poaceae).it is the one of the largest plant familyAnand P P
poaceae or true grass is a monocotyledon family.the family consist mainly grasses.different varieties of grasses are present under the categories.one of the most advanced reproductive mechanisms are present in the family.
This document discusses key aspects of pesticide labels including the types of information provided. It begins by defining what a pesticide is and explaining the different names a pesticide can have. It then describes the four main sections of a label which provide product information, safety precautions, environmental information, and directions for use. Specific details covered include signal words, personal protective equipment, precautions, and proper storage and disposal. It emphasizes that the label must always be followed and that pesticide use inconsistent with the labeling is a violation of federal law.
award winning ppt on Pest of pulses by nageshNagesh sadili
This document discusses several minor pests that affect pulses:
- Green leafhoppers, papaya mealybug, thrips, pod bugs, leaf folders, and stem flies damage leaves, pods, and stems and can reduce crop yields. Management includes insecticide sprays and seed treatments.
- Termites, scales, blister beetles, and flower webbers feed on plant tissues and reduce crop quality. Control involves locating and destroying colonies, or applying insecticides.
- Other pests mentioned are leaf miners, leaf cutter bees, redgram bud weevil, and caterpillars that feed on leaves, buds, and flowers, potentially stunting plant growth. Management
The document summarizes the coniferous plant life found in the Lake Tahoe basin. It identifies the main conifer families of pine and cypress that are native to the area. Key pine species discussed include white fir, red fir, Jeffrey pine, and lodgepole pine. Incense-cedar is also examined as part of the cypress family. The importance of these conifers to the local ecosystem is addressed, as well as their evolutionary history and adaptations. Core samples were taken from trees to analyze growth patterns. Granite and volcanic rock formations are also briefly described.
The document summarizes the coniferous plant life found in the Lake Tahoe basin. It identifies the main conifer families of pine and cypress that are native to the area. Key pine species discussed include white fir, red fir, Jeffrey pine, and lodgepole pine. Incense-cedar is also examined as part of the cypress family. The importance of these conifers to the local ecosystem is addressed, as well as their evolutionary history and adaptations. Tree core samples were analyzed to determine tree ages and growth patterns. Granite and volcanic rock formations are also briefly described.
This document provides a summary of John Fors's field assignment to the Middle Fork of the American River canyon near Auburn, California. It includes background on the methodology, brief geological history of the Sierra Nevada mountain range, description of the geology of the river canyon which has been carved out over millions of years. It also discusses gold deposits in the area, provides examples of rock and plant samples collected with identification and descriptions, and notes some of the geological features and plant life observed.
This document provides a summary of John Fors's field assignment to the Middle Fork of the American River canyon near Auburn, California. It includes background on the methodology, brief geological history of the Sierra Nevada mountain range, description of the river canyon geology including tilted sedimentary rocks and gold deposits, examples of rock and plant specimens collected, and discussion of the geological features and plant evolution in the area. The summaries include observations on the steep terrain carved by the river, metamorphic and igneous rock samples, evidence of erosion, and native trees and shrubs such as madrone and canyon live oak.
New England Acorn Cooperative presentation at D Acres Educational Homestead: How to find, gather, process, and store acorns for human consumption. Acorn Walk and workshop.
Campania is a region in Italy with extensive coastline along the Tyrrhenian Sea and a mountainous interior. The varied terrain results in diverse environments that support different plant and animal populations. The coastal areas have a Mediterranean climate of hot summers and mild, rainy winters that favor evergreen shrubs and trees. Common plant species include oak, pine, and holm oak trees as well as bushes like arbutus, myrtle, and cistus. Though reduced by human activity, the region's wildlife includes reptiles like turtles and lizards, many bird species, some mammals such as wolf and otter, and a variety of fish in the seas.
This document describes three tree species: oak, sweet chestnut, and camellia. It provides details on their distribution, physical characteristics, history of use, and cultural significance. Oak was widely used for shipbuilding and railways until many specimens were felled. Sweet chestnuts were an important food source and their wood was used for construction before diseases reduced numbers. Camellias were introduced from Asia as ornamental plants and have become established in Galician parks and gardens, with flower exhibitions held year-round. The document suggests an activity for students to research and compare these three species in their own countries.
The document summarizes a study of two crab species that inhabit Crab Cove in Alameda, CA: the Bay Shore Crab and the Lined Shore Crab. The researcher hypothesized that since there are two crab species, they must occupy different niches. Through transect surveys in muddy and rocky areas, the researcher found that Bay Shore Crabs exclusively inhabited muddy areas under rocks, while Lined Shore Crabs exclusively inhabited rocky areas under rocks and in crevices. This suggests the two species partition resources by inhabiting different habitats to avoid competition. Both crab species feed on algae and diatoms but their niches differ due to habitat specialization in muddy versus rocky environments.
A desert is defined as a barren area that receives little precipitation, making living conditions difficult for organisms. About one-third of the Earth's land is arid or semi-arid, including polar regions called "cold deserts". Deserts can be classified by factors like precipitation, temperature, causes of desertification, and location. Plants and animals in deserts have adaptations like small leaves, spines, staying underground or dormant to survive the harsh environment. The Atacama Desert in Chile is one of the driest places on Earth, with some weather stations never receiving rain.
This document lists 15 tree species and provides brief descriptions of their habitat preferences based on soil moisture levels. It describes 5 different habitat types ranging from lowland wet areas that experience frequent flooding to upland dry areas with excessively drained soils. Each habitat type is associated with a wetland indicator status code that indicates how often a plant species is found in wetland versus non-wetland areas.
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1. BLACK TRUFFLE
AND
ITS CULTIVATION
Marcos Morcillo and Mónica Sánchez
MICOLOGIA FORESTAL & APLICADA
2. TRUFFLE AS A FUNGI
Truffles are the fruit of a mycorrhizal fungi. That means that lives associated to the roots
of some host trees or shrubs, as oaks, holm oaks and hazels, Cistus or some pines. Truffles
fruits into the ground and some species become aromatic with the aim that some animals
dig them up the ground and while eating them spread their spores. The aroma is also
appreciated by humans and recognized by dogs that can be trained to harvest them.
Truffles belong to the genus Tuber, into de Ascomicotina. There are several species, around
40, but a few of them have a real market value, like the black truffle or Perigord truffle
Tuber melanosporum, the winter truffle Tuber brumale, the summer trufle Tuber aestivum
and its ecotype the bourgundy truffle Tuber uncinatum, and the white truffle from
Piamonte Tuber magnatum, with great value, but its cultivation still has random results.
Black truffle (Tuber melanosporum Vitt.) Winter truffle (Tuber brumale)
Summer truffle (Tuber aestivum) Burgundi truffle (Tuber uncinatum)
3. ECOLOGY OF TRUFFIERES
Geographic, geologic and topographic characteristics
Black truffles fruits on limy soils under holm oaks, oak on the Mediterranean region in
Spain. Most of them can be found in the east part of the Iberic Peninsula, and over rocks
from the Primary, Secondary-mesozoic (Triasic, Jurasic and Cretacic), mostly on the Jurasic
superior.
Black Truffle naturally fruits at elevations between 100-1500m.o.s.l. and facing south. Are
recommended light slopes, avoiding floods and also avoiding the erosion from high slopes.
Natural Black truffle fruiting area in Spain.
Black truffle soil characteristics
Most of parameters before analyzed for truffle culture are not bearing in mind nowadays.
Texture, carbonates, iron, magnesium, potassium...have great variability. Actually the soil
structure trough the study of the horizons and the biological activity are more studied.
So to know if we can grow truffles on a soil we should study the horizons, confirm the
presence of carbonates and analyze the pH (that should be between 7.5-8.5)
Soil should not be water Proof, allowing water and air to drain trough.
To check if the soil has carbonates we can just drop diluted clorhidric acid and see that the
soil boils (effervescence).
4. Soil profile
Should not have discontinuities between layers, with some difficult to mark limits between
them.
Crumble structure and spherical particles. Avoid prismatic structures, sign of lixiviation.
Laminar structures shows compactation and flood. Bad soil structures get grooved and
heavy on dry weather.
Some grey and green colours on the soil profile mean bad drainage.
5. GOOD SOIL PROFILE FOR BLACK TRUFFLE
LAYER CHARACTERÍSTICS
♦ Light colour
A
A ♦ linked OM > free OM
♦ delayed clohidric reaction
UPPER
UPPER
UPPER ♦
♦ layer more than 20cm deep
♦ crumble structure
♦ more than 30cm deep
B
B ♦ Continuity between layers
ESTRUCTURAL ♦ Abundant rocks
♦ White zones are precipitates of calcium
carbonates. Unless they become a general
layer that avoid drainage.
♦ Red zones from carbonates loosing
♦ Biological activity (ants, worms...)
C
C ♦ Mother rock with grooves and porous
MOTHER ROCK ♦ Calcareous precipitations underneath the
rocks
♦ Positive reaction to clorhidric
6. BAD SOIL PROFILE FOR BLACK TRUFFLE
LAYER CHARACTERÍSTICS
♦ Dark-brown colour
A
A ♦ High organic material content.
♦ Clorhidric reaction quick and high or no
UPPER reaction at all.
♦ Massive, prismatic and laminar
structure
♦ Clay or calcareous layer that does not
B
B allow roots to cross down.
STRUCTURAL ♦ Blue colours from bad air flow
♦ Red colours from iron oxides mean
flood.
♦ Grey or green colours means frequent
flooding.
C
C
MOTHER ROCK
♦ Deep and continuous clay layer
♦ Shallow and compact Mother rock
7. Climate
Black and summer truffle are adapted to dry and hot
conditions, with well marked seasons, humid temperate or
cold sub humid Mediterranean climate. Hot and humid
springs, dry summers with some storms, no frost at the
beginning of autumn, and winters with no long cold periods
below 10ºC.
Rain between 425-900 mm. (600-1500 mm in Italy and
France). 48-64 mm of rain monthly from June to the end of
august, from a few summer storms.
Previous crops
Previous crops will condition the organic matter contents
and fungi contaminations on the area we’re planning to
plant the mycorhized seedlings.
Best previous crops are cereals, pulses, lucerne, most of
fruit trees, as they are endomycorhizal.
Host plant election
Black truffle grows in symbiosis with a wide variety of
plants (see next chart). But just some of them are used for
its cultivation. Actually in Spain about 90% of plantation are
with holm oak (Quercus ilex ssp. ballota), and secondary
oaks (Quercus pubescens, Quercus faginea)and hazel
(Corylus avellana).
8. Secondary speciies tthatt ttrufffflle has been
Secondary spec es ha ru e has been
Hostt pllantts used iin ttrufffflle cullttiivattiion
Hos p an s used n ru e cu va on ffound associiatted natturally..
ound assoc a ed na ura y
• pine (Pinus nigra)
• Pine (Pinus sylvestris)
• Holm oak • Turkish hazel (Corylus colurna)
(Quercus ilex ssp. ilex, Q. ilex ssp. Ballota, Q. • Birch (Betula pendula)
coccifera) • Carpinus
• Oaks • Lime tree (Tilia)
(Quercus pubescens Q. cerriodes, Q. petrae, • Cork oak (Quercus suber)
Q. robur , Q. faginea) • Popplar (Populus)
• willow (Salix)
• Hazel • Beech (Fagus)
(Corylus avellana)
• Chestnut tree (Castanea)
• (Cistus albidus, C. incanus, C. laurifolius, C.
salvifolius) and other Cistacea as Fumana
• Cedar (Cedrus)
DENSITY AND PLATATION DISTANCES
We recommend densities between 200-400 trees/Ha for
the black truffle. Less density as deeper, rich soils and
with water stocks, as trees will grow faster. More trees
per hectare allow more trees to fruit and less time to
wait for the production to start, but we have to prune
more to avoid the plantation to get closed.
Usually plants are located at 6x6 or 7x7 but we can also
join plants in the row and separate the rows at more
distance (6x8, 5x7 or 4x10). In this case rows are
planted north to south, allowing sun to light the centre of the whole row.
DISTANCE (m) PLANTS/Ha
5x5 400
5x6 333
6x6 277
6x7 238
6x8 238
Plant density depending of plant distances.
9. OUTPLANTING
Previous works to get the soil ready to plant are done in summer and autumn. Any
ploughing will be done with no heavy tractors and on dry soil avoiding soil compactation.
If soil is OK, but there’s no drainage we can plough deeper trying to break the plough layer
that appear after several years working at the same deep. Note not to tumble and mix soil
layers, that can lead to a delay starting to fruit.
Between November and may dig the plant holes and mark them not to harm the small
seedlings once planted, hard to see trough the weeds.
10. CULTIVATION PHASES
Plantation’s evolution and different works on every phase
PHASES
PHASES
PHASES RECOMMENDED WORKS
RECOMMENDED WORKS
RECOMMENDED WORKS
• Aim: plants should just survive, not to
develop in excess. Maintain mycorrhizae.
• Just on aerated, limy, draining soil, with
biological activity.
IIINSTALL
N STALL
NSTALL • Do not mix soil layers in the previous works.
Break ploughing layer if necessary.
2-3 years
2--3 years • Natural mulching
2 3 years
• No pruning.
• Water just if necessary (10-20 l/plant).
• Avoid weeds competence.
• Aim: avoid excessive grow of the tree.
• Chose between mow or plough 1-2 times a
PREFRUIIITIIING
PREFRU T N G
PREFRU T NG years (end of march)
6--12 years
6-1 2 years
6 12 years • Hand plough just around plants.
• Water just if necessary.
• Start pruning regularly.
• Mowing to avoid weed competence
• On best trees centrifugal hand ploughs.
FRUIIITIIING
FRU T N G
FRU T NG • From the end of June, in case of drought (20-
25 days without rain (depending on soil).
10--35 years
10-3 5 years
10 35 years • Use straw, branches, rock mulching to sep
humidity and improve biological activity.
• Regular pruning to keep sunlight on the brûle.
• Aim: Do not allow trees to get a full
RENOVATIIIÓN
RENOVAT Ó N
RENOVAT ÓN canopy
35--45 years
35-4 5 years
35 45 years • Thin not producing trees to generate new
clears and zones that allow existing brûles to
spread.
11. General Works during the fruiting phase
• 1-2 times a year. Shallow (15-20cm deep) outside he brûle, and 5-
10cm into the active brûle.
• End of march and April for melanosporum
• January and February for the aestivum variety
PLOUGHIING
PLOUGH NG
• We can allow weeds to develop in the middle of the rows
• Hand Works seems to be in harmony with the centrifugal growth of
the roots and mycorrhizae.
• Branches from pruning or just rocks
• Located where the brûle grows, at 1,5m one from each other, never
MULCHIING
MULCH NG covering the whole brûle.
• Put them n June and we can move hem once or twice during he
summer.
• Just in case of drought, 48-64 mm. monthly from June to the end of
WATERIING
WATER NG august, by sprinkles and leaving some dry days.
• Usually like a turned upside down cone form.
• Adapt to every place. Light pruning in case of shallow soils and
PRUNNIING
PRUNN NG warm places
12. MATURE TREES INOCULATION
Other fungi coexist with truffles into the brûle. Mushrooms that fruit at young stands are
not the same that appear when the forest gets older. A temporal succession exists and we
can take part on it when the conditions are suitable.
Truffles live associated to mature trees and their inoculation could reduce the time we wait
for start fruiting.
These techniques have a great value for the regeneration and creation of new truffieres, as
well as for those artificial plantations that lose truffle mycorrhizae.
But with the last results, conclusion is that is hard to mycorrhizate mature trees with
truffle when they already have other fungi on their roots. In our studies, some trees, like
hazel, are easier to mycorrhizate in late stages than oaks.
Download here our results on this field .PDF
HARVEST
Truffles should be harvested just with trained dogs. Other animals as pigs could harm the
truffiere. Always use the truffle machete. Do not use any other tools for digging as you
would harm the truffiere. Just dig where the dog marks. Never plough for harvest truffles
as you would do for potatoes.
Truffle season in Spain starts from 15th November to
15th march for the black and winter truffle. And from
1st May to the end of august for the summer truffle.
No season by law is applied for burgundy truffle. It’s
forbidden to sell fresh truffles in the markets a week
later after the dateline.
The aim is not to harvest too young truffles and allow
some mature truffles to get ripped at the end of the
season.
13. ECONOMICAL FEATURES ABOUT TRUFFLE
Usually truffle fruits on poor agronomical soils, on places where crops need grants to
sustain. Truffle cultivation gives independence from those grants, with incomes that can
treble traditional crops, and even raise the value of the land in those potential truffle
growing areas.
19%
38%
43%
España Francia Italia
Production of truffles on the three main countries. Average of productions from 1990-2002.
In Spain we harvest about 30-50% on the world
black truffle production. About 10.000 families
have truffle harvesters.
Truffle price depends on the quality of the truffle
season. Demand adjusts to the typical models
where high productions lead to lower prices. Black
Truffle prices at harvester are around 200-850€/kg.
A little bit less than half this quantity for the
winter truffle. Summer truffle is paid to the
harvester between 35-80 €/kg.
14. Some trade shows just about truffle can join crouds during the truffle season. Tourism related with
the visits to truffle plantations could improve the income of this crop.
Truffle is commercialized trough the truffle markets all along the natural areas with truffle
tradition, intermediaries usually buy on this markets and visit harvesters at their homes.
These markets, despite of being on public places (restaurants, pubs...) they are not open to
the general citizens. In fact you can be on a pub at the market time and not realize on
that. Harvesters and buyers meet there, talk, negotiate prices, then go outside and take
the truffles from one car to another. Sometimes you can not smell, even touch the product.
What a big difference from French markets, where you can get their aroma and say how
much you want to pay for.
Truffle market at Limogne (Francia)
15. Nowadays in Spain there are 20-25 canneries that export most of our black truffle to
France, Italy, Belgium, Germany and The USA. The inner consumption of black truffle in
Spain is really low. There’s a lot of work to do in their promotion and attach importance to
our truffles.
Truffle Cannery
SPAIIIN
SPA N
SPA N FRANCE
FRANCE
FRANCE IIITALY
T AL Y
T AL Y TOTAL U...E...
TOTAL U E
TOTAL U E
Tuberrmelllanosporrum
Tuber me a nosporu m
Tube me anospo um 5--80
5-8 0
5 80 15--80
15-8 0
15 80 10--80
10-8 0
10 80 30--240
30-2 40
30 240
Tuberraestttiivum
Tuber aes iv um
Tube aes vum 20--30
20-3 0
20 30 15--30
15-3 0
15 30 15--30
15-3 0
15 30 55--120
55-1 20
55 120
Tuberruniiinatttum
Tuber un n a u m
Tube un na um 5--10
5-1 0
5 10 2--5
2-5
25 2--5
2-5
25 9--20
9-2 0
9 20
Tuberrmagnatttum
Tuber magna u m
Tube magna um 5--50
5-5 0
5 50 5--50
5-5 0
5 50
Tuberrmesenttterriicum
Tuber mesen e ric um
Tube mesen e cum 2--4
2-4
24 4--9
4-9
49 4--9
4-9
49
Production of truffles in the three main countries. Minimum and maximum amounts in Tons.
16. The value of the truffle market between harvesters and buyers is about 600.000 € and 15M€
every year, with higher values once transformed and exported.
Porcentajes de facturación de las diferentes trufas
15%
10%
75%
Trufa invierno Trufa verano Trufa negra
Media production in the whole European Community is about 100Tn, usually there no a goog
year in the three countries at the same season. At the beginning of the XX century, the
1000Tn harvested in France where absorbed by the marked. On 1966 the estimation fro
France demand on truffles where 340Tn, If we take into account that the standard of living
and the raise in population, that demand should be higher. In conclusion there is a truffle
demand for a decreasing production.
TURN OVER ON TRUFFLE CULTURE
It’s hard to get average of productions on artificial plantations. Some references exist: a
single brûle can produce 10kg of truffles and some plantations can get 200kg a year per
hectare, but at the same time there are plantations that never become productive.
Quallliity plllanttattiion
Qua itty p a nta tio n
Qua y p an a on 10--20 yearss
10-2 0 yearss
10 20 yearss 20--30 years
20-3 0 years
20 30 years Unttiillll 50 years
Untill 50 years
Un 50 years
Hiiigh producttiiviiity
H g h productiv tty
H gh produc v y 30
30
30 60
60
60 90
90
90
((kg//Ha//year))
(k g/H a/y ear)
kg Ha year
Mediiium producttiiviiity
u m productiv tty
Med um produc v y
Med 15
15
15 30
30
30 45
45
45
((kg//Ha//year))
(k g/H a/y ear)
kg Ha year
Low producttiiviiity
Low productiv tty
Low produc v y 3
3
3 6
6
6 9
9
9
((kg//Ha//year))
(k g/H a/y ear)
kg Ha year
Some black truffle productions from different quality plantations
17. A truffle plantation should produce at least 8-10kg/ha/year to redemption the investments.
Some French truffle grower says that from year 50 production decreases.
Next chart shows a financial study for a hectare truffle plantation in Spain
Cost Maiintenance Productiion Truffflle Cash ffllow
Cost Ma ntenance Product on Truf e Cash ow Acumulated
Year IItems
Year tems Acumulated
€/ha €/ha
€/ha €/ha Kg/ha
Kg/ha €/ha
€/ha
0 Plantación -1800 -1800 -1800
1 -300 -300 -2100
2 -300 -300 -2400
3 -300 -300 -2700
4 -300 -300 -3000
5 -300 -300 -3300
6 -300 -300 -3600
7 -300 -300 -3900
8 -300 -300 -4200
9 -300 -300 -4500
Vallado -1500
10 Riego -1500 -300 -1800 -6300
11 -300 8 2400 2100 -4200
12 -300 10 3000 2700 -1500
13 -300 12 3600 3300 1800
14 -300 13 3900 3600 5400
15 -300 15 4500 4200 9600
16 -300 16 4800 4500 14100
17 -300 17 5100 4800 18900
18 -300 18 5400 5100 24000
19 -300 19 5700 5400 29400
20 -300 20 6000 5700 35100
Other studies say that actual net value in plantations from Spain, France and Italy are
between 19.424€/ha and 66.972 €/Ha. Medium profitability get with the inner profit tax is
always higher that 9%, and the time to get back the invest equal or higher to 10 years.