Serializability is a concept that helps check if schedules are serializable. A serializable schedule always leaves the database in a consistent state. Non-serial schedules may cause inconsistencies, so serializability checks if they can be converted to an equivalent serial schedule to maintain consistency. Different types of serializability include view serializability and conflict serializability. View serializability requires schedules be view equivalent to a serial schedule with matching initial reads, final writes, and update reads. Conflict serializability converts a schedule by swapping non-conflicting operations, where two operations conflict if they are in different transactions, access the same data item, and one is a write.
The document discusses the ACID properties of database transactions: Atomicity ensures transactions are all or nothing; Consistency ensures transactions change the database from one valid state to another; Isolation ensures transactions execute serially despite concurrent execution; Durability ensures transaction changes are permanent even if the database fails. Each property is managed by a different database component - transaction management, application programmer, concurrency control manager, and recovery manager respectively.
Transactions are units of program execution that access and update database items. A transaction must preserve database consistency. Concurrent transactions are allowed for increased throughput but can result in inconsistent views. Serializability ensures transactions appear to execute serially in some order. Conflict serializability compares transaction instruction orderings while view serializability compares transaction views. Concurrency control protocols enforce serializability without examining schedules after execution.
The document discusses transaction concepts in database systems. It defines transactions as units of program execution that access and update database items. Transactions must satisfy the ACID properties of atomicity, consistency, isolation, and durability. Concurrent transaction execution allows for increased throughput but requires mechanisms to ensure serializability and recoverability. The document describes transaction states, schedule serializability testing using precedence graphs, and the goal of concurrency control protocols to enforce serializability without examining schedules after execution.
A schedule specifies the order of transaction execution. There are three types of schedules: serial, non-serial, and serializable. A serial schedule completes one transaction fully before starting the next, while non-serial schedules allow interleaving of transaction operations. A serializable schedule leaves the database in a consistent state, like a serial schedule. Conflicting operations, where two transactions operate on the same data simultaneously in a way that could produce inconsistent results, can cause non-serializability.
The document discusses concurrent transactions in database systems. It defines a transaction as a unit of program execution that accesses and updates database data. Concurrent transaction execution improves system throughput and resource utilization while reducing wait times. However, concurrency control schemes like locking protocols and timestamp ordering are needed to ensure transactions execute serially to preserve data consistency and serializability. The document provides an overview of transaction concepts, states, concurrency control techniques, and how SQL handles transactions.
Transaction Properties in database | ACID Propertiesnomanbarki
Noman Khan, a 4th semester CS student, is giving a presentation on transaction properties (ACID properties) for his Computer Science department. The presentation discusses that a transaction must either fully commit or rollback, leaving the data in a consistent state. A transaction must also have four key properties: Atomicity, ensuring all-or-nothing changes; Consistency, ensuring valid state transitions; Isolation, ensuring transactions don't interfere; and Durability, ensuring transaction changes survive crashes.
The document discusses different types of schedules for transactions in a database including serial, serializable, and equivalent schedules. A serial schedule requires transactions to execute consecutively without interleaving, while a serializable schedule allows interleaving as long as the schedule is equivalent to a serial schedule. Equivalence is determined based on conflicts, views, or results between the schedules. Conflict serializable schedules can be tested for cycles in a precedence graph to determine if interleaving introduces conflicts, while view serializable schedules must produce the same reads and writes as a serial schedule.
Serializability is a concept that helps check if schedules are serializable. A serializable schedule always leaves the database in a consistent state. Non-serial schedules may cause inconsistencies, so serializability checks if they can be converted to an equivalent serial schedule to maintain consistency. Different types of serializability include view serializability and conflict serializability. View serializability requires schedules be view equivalent to a serial schedule with matching initial reads, final writes, and update reads. Conflict serializability converts a schedule by swapping non-conflicting operations, where two operations conflict if they are in different transactions, access the same data item, and one is a write.
The document discusses the ACID properties of database transactions: Atomicity ensures transactions are all or nothing; Consistency ensures transactions change the database from one valid state to another; Isolation ensures transactions execute serially despite concurrent execution; Durability ensures transaction changes are permanent even if the database fails. Each property is managed by a different database component - transaction management, application programmer, concurrency control manager, and recovery manager respectively.
Transactions are units of program execution that access and update database items. A transaction must preserve database consistency. Concurrent transactions are allowed for increased throughput but can result in inconsistent views. Serializability ensures transactions appear to execute serially in some order. Conflict serializability compares transaction instruction orderings while view serializability compares transaction views. Concurrency control protocols enforce serializability without examining schedules after execution.
The document discusses transaction concepts in database systems. It defines transactions as units of program execution that access and update database items. Transactions must satisfy the ACID properties of atomicity, consistency, isolation, and durability. Concurrent transaction execution allows for increased throughput but requires mechanisms to ensure serializability and recoverability. The document describes transaction states, schedule serializability testing using precedence graphs, and the goal of concurrency control protocols to enforce serializability without examining schedules after execution.
A schedule specifies the order of transaction execution. There are three types of schedules: serial, non-serial, and serializable. A serial schedule completes one transaction fully before starting the next, while non-serial schedules allow interleaving of transaction operations. A serializable schedule leaves the database in a consistent state, like a serial schedule. Conflicting operations, where two transactions operate on the same data simultaneously in a way that could produce inconsistent results, can cause non-serializability.
The document discusses concurrent transactions in database systems. It defines a transaction as a unit of program execution that accesses and updates database data. Concurrent transaction execution improves system throughput and resource utilization while reducing wait times. However, concurrency control schemes like locking protocols and timestamp ordering are needed to ensure transactions execute serially to preserve data consistency and serializability. The document provides an overview of transaction concepts, states, concurrency control techniques, and how SQL handles transactions.
Transaction Properties in database | ACID Propertiesnomanbarki
Noman Khan, a 4th semester CS student, is giving a presentation on transaction properties (ACID properties) for his Computer Science department. The presentation discusses that a transaction must either fully commit or rollback, leaving the data in a consistent state. A transaction must also have four key properties: Atomicity, ensuring all-or-nothing changes; Consistency, ensuring valid state transitions; Isolation, ensuring transactions don't interfere; and Durability, ensuring transaction changes survive crashes.
The document discusses different types of schedules for transactions in a database including serial, serializable, and equivalent schedules. A serial schedule requires transactions to execute consecutively without interleaving, while a serializable schedule allows interleaving as long as the schedule is equivalent to a serial schedule. Equivalence is determined based on conflicts, views, or results between the schedules. Conflict serializable schedules can be tested for cycles in a precedence graph to determine if interleaving introduces conflicts, while view serializable schedules must produce the same reads and writes as a serial schedule.
ACID properties
Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability
Transactions should possess several properties, often called the ACID properties; they should be enforced by the concurrency control and recovery methods of the DBMS.
Concurrency control mechanisms use various protocols like lock-based, timestamp-based, and validation-based to maintain database consistency when transactions execute concurrently. Lock-based protocols use locks on data items to control concurrent access, with two-phase locking being a common approach. Timestamp-based protocols order transactions based on timestamps to ensure serializability. Validation-based protocols validate that a transaction's writes do not violate serializability before committing its writes.
This document discusses transaction processing and concurrency control in database systems. It defines a transaction as a unit of program execution that accesses and possibly modifies data. It describes the key properties of transactions as atomicity, consistency, isolation, and durability. It discusses how concurrency control techniques like locking and two-phase locking protocols are used to ensure serializable execution of concurrent transactions.
This document discusses lock-based protocols for concurrency control. It describes that locks can be requested in exclusive or shared mode to control concurrent access to data items. A lock compatibility matrix is used to determine if a requested lock is compatible with existing locks held by other transactions. The Two Phase Locking protocol is introduced to ensure conflict serializable schedules by restricting transactions to an growing phase where they only acquire locks and a shrinking phase where they only release locks.
The document discusses various concurrency control techniques used in database management systems to ensure transaction isolation. It covers locking techniques like two-phase locking and timestamp ordering. Locking involves associating locks like read/write locks with data items. The two-phase locking protocol defines rules for acquiring and releasing locks in two distinct phases. Timestamp ordering assigns unique timestamps to transactions and ensures conflicting operations are executed based on timestamp order to guarantee serializability.
The document discusses various concurrency control techniques for database systems, including lock-based protocols, timestamp-based protocols, and graph-based protocols. Lock-based protocols use locks to control concurrent access to data with different lock modes. Timestamp-based protocols assign timestamps to transactions and manage concurrency to ensure transactions execute in timestamp order. Graph-based protocols impose a partial ordering on data items modeled as a directed acyclic graph.
The document discusses relationship sets and the degree of a relationship set in a database management system. A relationship set is a set of relationships of the same type between two or more entity sets. The degree of a relationship set refers to the number of entity sets participating in that relationship. There are four types of relationship sets: unary, binary, ternary, and n-ary. A unary relationship involves one entity set, a binary involves two entity sets, a ternary involves three entity sets, and an n-ary relationship can involve any number of entity sets, denoted by n.
The document discusses transactions and the ACID properties that ensure transaction integrity in a database management system (DBMS). It defines a transaction as a logical unit of work that can include operations like insert, delete, update, or retrieve data from a database. ACID properties - Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, and Durability - guarantee that transactions are processed reliably and data integrity is maintained. It provides examples to illustrate how each ACID property functions and its importance for transaction processing.
This document summarizes a student's research project on improving the performance of real-time distributed databases. It proposes a "user control distributed database model" to help manage overload transactions at runtime. The abstract introduces the topic and outlines the contents. The introduction provides background on distributed databases and the motivation for the student's work in developing an approach to reduce runtime errors during periods of high load. It summarizes some existing research on concurrency control in centralized databases.
Multi version concurrency control techniques
This approach maintains a number of versions of a data item and allocates the right version to a read operation of a transaction. Thus unlike other mechanisms a read operation in this mechanism is never rejected.
The document discusses concurrency control in databases. It describes transactions, their ACID properties (atomicity, consistency, independence, durability), and problems that can occur with concurrent transactions like lost updates, integrity constraint violations, and inconsistent retrievals. It also covers serialization, serial schedules, serializable schedules, and concurrency control techniques like locking, timestamps, and optimistic methods.
This document summarizes a seminar presentation on database triggers. It defines a database trigger as procedural code that is automatically executed in response to certain events on a table or view. It discusses the types of events that can fire a trigger, including DML, DDL, system, and user events. It also outlines the need for triggers to enforce business rules, audit changes, and enhance performance. The document provides details on the major features of triggers, including the different types of triggers based on timing (before and after), scope (row and statement), and triggering event (DML, DDL, system, user). It concludes with an example of the syntax for creating a database trigger.
Transactions are used to ensure data integrity and manage concurrent access in SQL Server. There are two types of transactions: implicit, which automatically commit after each statement, and explicit, which require BEGIN, COMMIT, or ROLLBACK statements. Transactions have ACID properties including atomicity, consistency, isolation, and durability. Isolation levels like read committed and serializable control how transactions see concurrent data modifications. Snapshot isolation is an alternative to locking that uses row versioning to provide consistency.
ACID properties:
• Atomicity: A transaction is an atomic unit of processing; it is either performed in its entirety or not performed at all.
• Consistency preservation: A correct execution of the transaction must take the database from one consistent state to another.
• Isolation: A transaction should not make its updates visible to other transactions until it is committed; this property, when enforced strictly, solves the temporary update problem and makes cascading rollbacks of transactions unnecessary (see Chapter 21).
• Durability or permanency: Once a transaction changes the database and the changes are committed, these changes must never be lost because of subsequent failure.
Concurrency control is a mechanism for managing simultaneous transactions in a shared database to ensure serializability and isolation of transactions. It utilizes locking protocols like two-phase locking to control access to database items during transactions and prevent issues like lost updates, dirty reads, and incorrect summaries that can occur without concurrency control when transactions' operations are interleaved.
Functional dependency defines a relationship between attributes in a table where a set of attributes determine another attribute. There are different types of functional dependencies including trivial, non-trivial, multivalued, and transitive. An example given is a student table with attributes Stu_Id, Stu_Name, Stu_Age which has the functional dependency of Stu_Id->Stu_Name since the student ID uniquely identifies the student name.
The document discusses different types of joins in database systems. It defines natural join, inner join, equi join, theta join, semi join, anti join, cross join, outer join including left, right and full outer joins, and self join. Examples are provided for each type of join to illustrate how they work.
The document discusses the ACID properties that guarantee database transactions are processed reliably. ACID is an acronym that stands for atomicity, consistency, isolation, and durability. Atomicity means all or nothing transactions. Consistency means transactions can only change data in allowed ways and guarantees the committed transaction state. Isolation means transactions appear to be the only action and transactions are independent. Durability means committed data will never be lost once a transaction is successfully completed.
Concurrency control techniques ensure consistency and reliability of concurrent transactions in a database. They synchronize transaction operations to maintain consistency while allowing maximum concurrency. Three main techniques are locking-based protocols, timestamp ordering, and optimistic concurrency control. Locking-based protocols like two-phase locking use locks to control access to shared data and guarantee serializability. Timestamp ordering assigns timestamps to transactions and validates reads and writes based on timestamp order. Optimistic concurrency control allows transactions to read and write tentatively without locking, and validates at the end to commit only if no conflicts occurred.
The document discusses NP-complete problems and the complexity classes P and NP. It provides examples of problems that are in P, such as 2-SAT, and problems that are NP-complete, such as 3-SAT. It explains that problems in P can be solved quickly in polynomial time by an algorithm, while problems in NP are ones where a proposed solution can be quickly verified in polynomial time, even if finding the solution may be intractable. The document seeks to formalize the distinction between easy and hard computational problems.
ACID properties
Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability
Transactions should possess several properties, often called the ACID properties; they should be enforced by the concurrency control and recovery methods of the DBMS.
Concurrency control mechanisms use various protocols like lock-based, timestamp-based, and validation-based to maintain database consistency when transactions execute concurrently. Lock-based protocols use locks on data items to control concurrent access, with two-phase locking being a common approach. Timestamp-based protocols order transactions based on timestamps to ensure serializability. Validation-based protocols validate that a transaction's writes do not violate serializability before committing its writes.
This document discusses transaction processing and concurrency control in database systems. It defines a transaction as a unit of program execution that accesses and possibly modifies data. It describes the key properties of transactions as atomicity, consistency, isolation, and durability. It discusses how concurrency control techniques like locking and two-phase locking protocols are used to ensure serializable execution of concurrent transactions.
This document discusses lock-based protocols for concurrency control. It describes that locks can be requested in exclusive or shared mode to control concurrent access to data items. A lock compatibility matrix is used to determine if a requested lock is compatible with existing locks held by other transactions. The Two Phase Locking protocol is introduced to ensure conflict serializable schedules by restricting transactions to an growing phase where they only acquire locks and a shrinking phase where they only release locks.
The document discusses various concurrency control techniques used in database management systems to ensure transaction isolation. It covers locking techniques like two-phase locking and timestamp ordering. Locking involves associating locks like read/write locks with data items. The two-phase locking protocol defines rules for acquiring and releasing locks in two distinct phases. Timestamp ordering assigns unique timestamps to transactions and ensures conflicting operations are executed based on timestamp order to guarantee serializability.
The document discusses various concurrency control techniques for database systems, including lock-based protocols, timestamp-based protocols, and graph-based protocols. Lock-based protocols use locks to control concurrent access to data with different lock modes. Timestamp-based protocols assign timestamps to transactions and manage concurrency to ensure transactions execute in timestamp order. Graph-based protocols impose a partial ordering on data items modeled as a directed acyclic graph.
The document discusses relationship sets and the degree of a relationship set in a database management system. A relationship set is a set of relationships of the same type between two or more entity sets. The degree of a relationship set refers to the number of entity sets participating in that relationship. There are four types of relationship sets: unary, binary, ternary, and n-ary. A unary relationship involves one entity set, a binary involves two entity sets, a ternary involves three entity sets, and an n-ary relationship can involve any number of entity sets, denoted by n.
The document discusses transactions and the ACID properties that ensure transaction integrity in a database management system (DBMS). It defines a transaction as a logical unit of work that can include operations like insert, delete, update, or retrieve data from a database. ACID properties - Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, and Durability - guarantee that transactions are processed reliably and data integrity is maintained. It provides examples to illustrate how each ACID property functions and its importance for transaction processing.
This document summarizes a student's research project on improving the performance of real-time distributed databases. It proposes a "user control distributed database model" to help manage overload transactions at runtime. The abstract introduces the topic and outlines the contents. The introduction provides background on distributed databases and the motivation for the student's work in developing an approach to reduce runtime errors during periods of high load. It summarizes some existing research on concurrency control in centralized databases.
Multi version concurrency control techniques
This approach maintains a number of versions of a data item and allocates the right version to a read operation of a transaction. Thus unlike other mechanisms a read operation in this mechanism is never rejected.
The document discusses concurrency control in databases. It describes transactions, their ACID properties (atomicity, consistency, independence, durability), and problems that can occur with concurrent transactions like lost updates, integrity constraint violations, and inconsistent retrievals. It also covers serialization, serial schedules, serializable schedules, and concurrency control techniques like locking, timestamps, and optimistic methods.
This document summarizes a seminar presentation on database triggers. It defines a database trigger as procedural code that is automatically executed in response to certain events on a table or view. It discusses the types of events that can fire a trigger, including DML, DDL, system, and user events. It also outlines the need for triggers to enforce business rules, audit changes, and enhance performance. The document provides details on the major features of triggers, including the different types of triggers based on timing (before and after), scope (row and statement), and triggering event (DML, DDL, system, user). It concludes with an example of the syntax for creating a database trigger.
Transactions are used to ensure data integrity and manage concurrent access in SQL Server. There are two types of transactions: implicit, which automatically commit after each statement, and explicit, which require BEGIN, COMMIT, or ROLLBACK statements. Transactions have ACID properties including atomicity, consistency, isolation, and durability. Isolation levels like read committed and serializable control how transactions see concurrent data modifications. Snapshot isolation is an alternative to locking that uses row versioning to provide consistency.
ACID properties:
• Atomicity: A transaction is an atomic unit of processing; it is either performed in its entirety or not performed at all.
• Consistency preservation: A correct execution of the transaction must take the database from one consistent state to another.
• Isolation: A transaction should not make its updates visible to other transactions until it is committed; this property, when enforced strictly, solves the temporary update problem and makes cascading rollbacks of transactions unnecessary (see Chapter 21).
• Durability or permanency: Once a transaction changes the database and the changes are committed, these changes must never be lost because of subsequent failure.
Concurrency control is a mechanism for managing simultaneous transactions in a shared database to ensure serializability and isolation of transactions. It utilizes locking protocols like two-phase locking to control access to database items during transactions and prevent issues like lost updates, dirty reads, and incorrect summaries that can occur without concurrency control when transactions' operations are interleaved.
Functional dependency defines a relationship between attributes in a table where a set of attributes determine another attribute. There are different types of functional dependencies including trivial, non-trivial, multivalued, and transitive. An example given is a student table with attributes Stu_Id, Stu_Name, Stu_Age which has the functional dependency of Stu_Id->Stu_Name since the student ID uniquely identifies the student name.
The document discusses different types of joins in database systems. It defines natural join, inner join, equi join, theta join, semi join, anti join, cross join, outer join including left, right and full outer joins, and self join. Examples are provided for each type of join to illustrate how they work.
The document discusses the ACID properties that guarantee database transactions are processed reliably. ACID is an acronym that stands for atomicity, consistency, isolation, and durability. Atomicity means all or nothing transactions. Consistency means transactions can only change data in allowed ways and guarantees the committed transaction state. Isolation means transactions appear to be the only action and transactions are independent. Durability means committed data will never be lost once a transaction is successfully completed.
Concurrency control techniques ensure consistency and reliability of concurrent transactions in a database. They synchronize transaction operations to maintain consistency while allowing maximum concurrency. Three main techniques are locking-based protocols, timestamp ordering, and optimistic concurrency control. Locking-based protocols like two-phase locking use locks to control access to shared data and guarantee serializability. Timestamp ordering assigns timestamps to transactions and validates reads and writes based on timestamp order. Optimistic concurrency control allows transactions to read and write tentatively without locking, and validates at the end to commit only if no conflicts occurred.
The document discusses NP-complete problems and the complexity classes P and NP. It provides examples of problems that are in P, such as 2-SAT, and problems that are NP-complete, such as 3-SAT. It explains that problems in P can be solved quickly in polynomial time by an algorithm, while problems in NP are ones where a proposed solution can be quickly verified in polynomial time, even if finding the solution may be intractable. The document seeks to formalize the distinction between easy and hard computational problems.
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This document discusses transaction processing in database management systems (DBMS). It describes the ACID properties that transactions must satisfy - atomicity, consistency, isolation, and durability. An example of a fund transfer transaction is provided to illustrate these properties. Concurrency control is discussed as a mechanism for allowing concurrent transactions while maintaining isolation. The concepts of schedules, conflicting instructions, conflict serializability, and view serializability are introduced for evaluating the correctness of concurrent transaction executions.
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3. Transaction Serializability
•Basic Assumption – Each transaction preserves database
consistency.
•Thus serial execution of a set of transactions preserves
database consistency.
•A (possibly concurrent) schedule is serializable if it is
equivalent to a serial schedule.
•Different forms of schedule equivalence give rise to the
notions of:
1. Conflict serializability
2. View serializability
Hope Foundation’s International Institute of Information Technology, I²IT, P-14 Rajiv Gandhi Infotech Park, Hinjawadi, Pune - 411 057
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4. Conflicting Instructions
• Instructions li and lj of transactions Ti and Tj respectively, conflict if and
only if there exists some item Q accessed by both li and lj, and at least one of
these instructions wrote Q.
1. li = read(Q), lj = read(Q). li and lj don’t conflict.
2. li = read(Q), lj = write(Q). They conflict.
3. li = write(Q),lj = read(Q). They conflict
4. li = write(Q),lj = write(Q). They conflict
• Intuitively, a conflict between li and lj forces a (logical) temporal order
between them.
• If li and lj are consecutive in a schedule and they do not conflict, their results would
remain the same even if they had been interchanged in the schedule.
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5. Conflict Serializability
•If a schedule S can be transformed into a schedule S´
by a series of swaps of non-conflicting instructions,
we say that S and S´ are conflict equivalent.
•We say that a schedule S is conflict serializable if it
is conflict equivalent to a serial schedule.
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6. Conflict Serializability
• Schedule 1 can be transformed into Schedule 2, a serial schedule where T2
follows T1, by series of swaps of non-conflicting instructions.
• Therefore Schedule 1 is conflict serializable.
Schedule 1 Schedule 2
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7. • Example of a schedule that is not conflict serializable:
• We are unable to swap instructions in the above schedule to obtain
either the serial schedule < T3, T4 >, or the serial schedule < T4, T3
>.
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8. Testing for Serializability
•Consider some schedule of a set of transactions T1, T2, ..., Tn
•Precedence graph — a direct graph where the vertices are
the transactions (names).
•We draw an arc from Ti to Tj if the two transaction conflict,
and Ti accessed the data item on which the conflict arose
earlier.
•We may label the arc by the item that was accessed.
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9. Example
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10. How to check for Conflict serializability?
• Consider the schedule
• T1 | R1(X) R1(X)
• T2 | R2(Y) R2(Y) W2(X)
• T3 | W3(Y)
• Step #1 : Check for the conflicting actions.
• Two or more actions are said to be in conflict if:
• 1. The actions belong to different transactions.
2. At least one of the actions is a write operation.
3. The actions access the same object (read or write).
• The following set of actions is conflicting:
• T1:R(X), T2:W(X), T1:R(X)
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11. • While the following sets of actions are not:
• T1:R(X), T2:R(Y), T3:R(X)
T1:R(X), T2:W(Y), T3:R(X)
• For our example, we have a conflict on X (T1 reads it and T2 writes it).
We also have a conflict on Y (T2 reads it and T3 writes it).
• So it has a conflict property but is it serializable?
• Step #2 : Check for a cycle in the Precedence Graph.
• First, draw all the Transactions (Tx):
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T1 T2
T3
Initial Graph
12. • Check if there is a Tx that reads an item after a different Tx writes it.
• We have T1 that reads X after T2 writes it, so draw arrow from T2 -> T1
• Check if there is a Tx that writes an item after a different Tx reads it.
• We have T2 that writes X after T1 reads it, so draw arrow from T1 -> T2
• We also have T3 that writes Y after T2 reads it, so draw arrow from T2 -> T3
• Check if there is a Tx that writes an item after a different TX writes it.
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13. • We can see that there is a cycle between T1 and T2, so
the graph is cyclic, and therefore it is not conflict
serializable.
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T1 T2
T3
Final Graph
14. VIEW SERIALIZABILITY
• Consider two schedules S1 and S2, where the same set of
transactions participates in both schedules. The schedules S1
and S2 are said to be view equivalent if three conditions are
met:
• 1. If Ti reads initial value of A in S1, then Ti also reads initial
value of A in S2
• 2. If Ti reads value of A written by Tj in S1, then Ti also reads
value of A written by Tj in S2
• 3. If Ti writes final value of A in S1, then Ti also writes final
value of A in S2
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15. • The concept of view equivalence leads to the concept of view
serializability.
• We say that a schedule S is view serializable if it is view
equivalent to a serial schedule.
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16. View Equivalent Schedule
• Consider two schedules S1 and S2, they are said to be view equivalent if
following conditions are true :
• Initial read must be same.
• S1 : T1 reads A from Database.
S2 : T1 reads A from T2.
∴ S1 ≠ S2.
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T1 T2
R(A)
W(A)
T1 T2
W(A)
R(A)
S1 S2
17. • There are two transactions say Ti and Tj, The schedule S1 and S2 are view
equivalent if in schedule S1, Ti reads A that has been updated by Tj, and in
schedule S2, Ti must read A from Tj. i.e. write-read(WR) sequence must be
same between S1 and S2.
S1 : T3 reads value of A from T2.
S2 : T3 reads value of A from T1.
∴ S1 ≠ S2.
i.e. write-read sequence is not
same between S1 and S2.
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T1 T2 T3
W(A)
W(A)
R(A)
S1
T1 T2 T3
W(A)
W(A)
R(A)
S2
18. • Final write operations should be same between S1 and S2.
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T1 T2 T3
W1(A)
R2(A)
W3(A)
S1
T1 T2 T3
W2(A)
W3(A)
R2(A)
W1(A)
S2
S1 : A is finally updated by T3.
S2 : A is finally updated by T1.
∴ S1 ≠ S2.
19. • Check whether the schedule is view serializable or not?
• S : R2(B); R2(A); R1(A); R3(A); W1(B); W2(B); W3(B)
• Solution: With 3 transactions, total number of schedules possible = 3! = 6
• <T1 T2 T3>
• <T1 T3 T2>
• <T2 T3 T1>
• <T2 T1 T3>
• <T3 T1 T2>
• <T3 T2 T1>
• Step 1 : Final Updation (Write) on data items
• A : -
• B : T1 T2 T3
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20. • Since the final updation on B is made by T3, so the transaction T3 must execute before transactions T1 and
T2.
• Therefore, (T1,T2) → T3
• Now, Removing those schedules in which T3 is not executing at last.
• Remaining Schedules : <T1 T2 T3> and <T2 T1 T3>
• Step 2 : Initial Read + Which transaction updates after read?
• A : T2 T1 T3
• B : T2 T1
• The transaction T2 reads B initially which is updated by T1. So T2 must execute before T1.
• Hence, T2 → T1
• Now, Removing those schedules in which T2 is not executing before T1.
• Remaining Schedules : <T2 T1 T3>
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21. • Step 3 : Write Read Sequence (WR) :
• No need to check here.
• Hence, view equivalent serial schedule is :
• T2 → T1 → T3
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22. • Check whether the schedules is View serializable or not ?
• R2(A); R1(A); W1(C); R3(C); W1(B); R4(B); W3(A); R4(C); W2(D);
R2(B); W4(A); W4(B)
• Solution
• The data items on which operations are occurring are A,B,C,D.
• Step 1 : Check for Final Updation (Write) on data items
• A : T3 T4
• B : T1 T4
• C : T1
• D : T2
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23. • Since the final updation on A is made by T4, so the transaction T4 must execute after T3
transaction.
• Since the final updation on B is made by T4, so the transaction T1 must execute before T3
transaction.
• Dependency 1 : (T1 T3) → T4 ..... (1)
• Step 2 : Initial Read
• Initial Read + Which transaction updates after read?
• A : T2 T1 T3
• The transaction T2 and T1 reads A initially from DB which is updated by T3. So T3 must
execute after T1 and T2.
• Dependency 2 : (T2 T1) → T3 ..... (2)
• From (1) and (2) dependencies, another dependency can be concluded as :
• Dependency 3 : (T1 T2) → T3 → T4 ..... (3)
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24. • Step 3 : Write Read Sequence (WR) :
WR Seq. : Dependencies :
W1(C) R3(C) T1 → T3
W1(C) R4(C) T1 → T4
W1(B) R4(B) T1 → T4
W1(B) R2(B) T1 → T2
• ⇒ T1 → (T2 T3 T4) ....(4)
• From (3) and (4) dependencies, We conclude the view equivalent serial schedule is :
• T1 → T2 → T3 → T4.
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25. • Check whether given schedule is view serializable. Justify your answer.
• Step 1 : Check for Final Updation (Write) on data item Q
• (T4, T3 ) -> T5
• DEPENDENCY : (T4 ,T3)→ T5 ……(1)
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26. • Step 2 : Initial Read
• Initial Read + Which transaction updates after read?
• T3 T4, T5
• The transaction T3 reads Q initially from DB which is updated by T4 & T5. So T3 must
execute before T4 and T5.
• Dependency 2 : T3 → (T4, T5) ..... (2)
• Step 3 : Write Read Sequence (WR)
• No need to check here.
• From dependency (1) T4 must happen before T3 & from dependency 2 T3 must happen
before T4. This results in cyclic dependency which cannot be resolved.
• Hence the given schedule is not view serializable.
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27. THANK YOU !!
For further information please contact
Prof. Deptii Chaudhari
Department of Computer Engineering
Hope Foundation’s International Institute of Information Technology, I2IT
Hinjawadi, Pune – 411 057
Phone - +91 20 22933441
www.isquareit.edu.in | deptiic@isquareit.edu.in
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