This document discusses the Proto-Germanic language and its relationship to other Indo-European languages. Some key points:
1) Proto-Germanic underwent significant sound shifts that set it apart from neighboring Indo-European languages like Proto-Celtic by the mid-1st millennium BC.
2) Proto-Germanic vocabulary contains unique elements not found in other Indo-European languages, as well as non-Indo-European loanwords that survive in modern Germanic languages.
3) Proto-Germanic borrowed from neighboring Celtic and Iranian languages due to long contact between Germanic tribes and these groups. It also shows traces of Caucasian and Kartvelian language influence.
An Ancient Hungarian Layer in the English LanguageKinga Brady
The relationship is suggested to be not so much a movement from one language to another, but that there had been an ancient language people spoke before the isolation of nations/languages. Today’s Hungarian language is the direct descendent of this ancient language, keeping it as a whole – other languages have only broken traces of this ancient language. The Celts took many words with them from Central Europe that created this layer in the English language.
Look at the many examples of this in the presentation
English as an indo european language textMaFranciscaaa
This document discusses English as an Indo-European language and the methods used to classify languages genetically. It notes that English, along with other Germanic languages like Dutch and German, can be shown to descend from a common ancestral language called Proto-Germanic through systematic similarities in their core vocabularies and structures. The document provides examples of number words and other basic vocabulary that are nearly identical across these related Germanic languages, too numerous to be coincidental, and must therefore be inherited from a shared ancestor rather than borrowed between languages. It introduces the comparative method used in historical linguistics to reconstruct ancestral languages.
Pamela Fox shares her passion for words and their origins by providing examples of how languages evolve, borrow words from each other, and are influenced over time. She discusses how English comes from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family and contains many borrowed words. Key examples provided are how "word" derives from proto-Germanic and Latin roots, "tea" came from Chinese through Dutch and Portuguese, and "orange" traveled through several languages before reaching English.
Translating into and out of a planned language: what does it mean?Federico Gobbo
Esperanto was established as a translation language through Zamenhof's translations of works from his native languages into Esperanto. Over time, as the Esperanto community grew, translations from many other languages helped develop the Esperanto language and literature. Early Esperantists relied heavily on source languages for translations, but the language gradually developed set expressions and idioms of its own. While new terms are still sometimes debated, translations played a key role in establishing Esperanto as a living language with its own standard register and literature.
Word order in the diachrony of Esperanto: A corpus-based study of noun-adje...Federico Gobbo
Talk given in the meeting at the University of Amsterdam of the international network on The Structure, Emergence and Evolution of Pidgin and Creole Languages (SEEPiCLa), Monday the 14th of December, 2015.
This document is a preface to a German grammar textbook. It provides context for how the book is organized and intended to be used. The key points are:
1) The book is designed to teach the spoken and written German of the present day in a practical way.
2) Grammatical concepts are first presented in detail and then reviewed and summarized to reinforce learning. Exercises are designed to encourage acquiring phrases rather than just words.
3) The authors sought to make the exercises and lessons engaging while thoroughly practicing oral skills and translation.
An alternative globalisation: Why learn Esperanto today?Federico Gobbo
Federico Gobbo presents an overview of Esperanto and why it is still relevant today. Esperanto was created in the late 19th century during a period of optimism about international cooperation and the potential for a universal language to unite Europe. While Esperanto's popularity declined after World War I, the language continues to have communities of speakers who use it both socially and to produce original cultural works. Gobbo argues that Esperanto remains valuable for its role in fostering multilingualism, as a platform for international cultural exchange, and as a symbol of an alternative form of globalization that respects diversity and human rights.
The study of the linguistic worldview in constructed languages on the example...Ida Stria
This document discusses the study of linguistic worldviews in constructed languages using Esperanto as an example. It provides an overview of linguistic worldview and definitions from literature. It then discusses Esperanto's characteristics including its constructed nature but natural development over time through use. The document outlines classifications of language development and considers whether Esperanto's community allows for analysis of linguistic worldview despite issues like its primarily L2 speakers and influence from other languages and cultures. It concludes Esperanto contains necessary elements for linguistic worldview analysis but the multilingual nature requires additional study.
An Ancient Hungarian Layer in the English LanguageKinga Brady
The relationship is suggested to be not so much a movement from one language to another, but that there had been an ancient language people spoke before the isolation of nations/languages. Today’s Hungarian language is the direct descendent of this ancient language, keeping it as a whole – other languages have only broken traces of this ancient language. The Celts took many words with them from Central Europe that created this layer in the English language.
Look at the many examples of this in the presentation
English as an indo european language textMaFranciscaaa
This document discusses English as an Indo-European language and the methods used to classify languages genetically. It notes that English, along with other Germanic languages like Dutch and German, can be shown to descend from a common ancestral language called Proto-Germanic through systematic similarities in their core vocabularies and structures. The document provides examples of number words and other basic vocabulary that are nearly identical across these related Germanic languages, too numerous to be coincidental, and must therefore be inherited from a shared ancestor rather than borrowed between languages. It introduces the comparative method used in historical linguistics to reconstruct ancestral languages.
Pamela Fox shares her passion for words and their origins by providing examples of how languages evolve, borrow words from each other, and are influenced over time. She discusses how English comes from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family and contains many borrowed words. Key examples provided are how "word" derives from proto-Germanic and Latin roots, "tea" came from Chinese through Dutch and Portuguese, and "orange" traveled through several languages before reaching English.
Translating into and out of a planned language: what does it mean?Federico Gobbo
Esperanto was established as a translation language through Zamenhof's translations of works from his native languages into Esperanto. Over time, as the Esperanto community grew, translations from many other languages helped develop the Esperanto language and literature. Early Esperantists relied heavily on source languages for translations, but the language gradually developed set expressions and idioms of its own. While new terms are still sometimes debated, translations played a key role in establishing Esperanto as a living language with its own standard register and literature.
Word order in the diachrony of Esperanto: A corpus-based study of noun-adje...Federico Gobbo
Talk given in the meeting at the University of Amsterdam of the international network on The Structure, Emergence and Evolution of Pidgin and Creole Languages (SEEPiCLa), Monday the 14th of December, 2015.
This document is a preface to a German grammar textbook. It provides context for how the book is organized and intended to be used. The key points are:
1) The book is designed to teach the spoken and written German of the present day in a practical way.
2) Grammatical concepts are first presented in detail and then reviewed and summarized to reinforce learning. Exercises are designed to encourage acquiring phrases rather than just words.
3) The authors sought to make the exercises and lessons engaging while thoroughly practicing oral skills and translation.
An alternative globalisation: Why learn Esperanto today?Federico Gobbo
Federico Gobbo presents an overview of Esperanto and why it is still relevant today. Esperanto was created in the late 19th century during a period of optimism about international cooperation and the potential for a universal language to unite Europe. While Esperanto's popularity declined after World War I, the language continues to have communities of speakers who use it both socially and to produce original cultural works. Gobbo argues that Esperanto remains valuable for its role in fostering multilingualism, as a platform for international cultural exchange, and as a symbol of an alternative form of globalization that respects diversity and human rights.
The study of the linguistic worldview in constructed languages on the example...Ida Stria
This document discusses the study of linguistic worldviews in constructed languages using Esperanto as an example. It provides an overview of linguistic worldview and definitions from literature. It then discusses Esperanto's characteristics including its constructed nature but natural development over time through use. The document outlines classifications of language development and considers whether Esperanto's community allows for analysis of linguistic worldview despite issues like its primarily L2 speakers and influence from other languages and cultures. It concludes Esperanto contains necessary elements for linguistic worldview analysis but the multilingual nature requires additional study.
The document describes two language laboratories conducted in a Montessori school in Milan. In the first laboratory, students invented a variant of Europanto, a linguistic pastiche, focusing on vocabulary from different languages. In the second laboratory, students invented a secret language called Markuskica, starting with phonology and morphology. They extracted words from Italian and other languages, added affixes to change meaning, and developed paradigms for new words. The goal of both laboratories was to increase students' metalinguistic awareness of their multilingual repertoire.
Interlinguistics and Esperanto Studies in the new MillenniumFederico Gobbo
Interlinguistics and Esperanto Studies in the new millennium focuses on three areas:
1) The history and philosophy of international auxiliary languages (IALs) like Esperanto, examining ideas of internationality and neutrality over time.
2) Linguistic analyses of Esperanto including morphology, syntax, and sociolinguistic studies of its use and community. Constructive Adpositional Grammars provide a framework.
3) The relationship between Esperanto and artificial intelligence, as Esperanto was used in early machine translation experiments and is now supported by tools like Google Translate.
Esperanto has evolved over time from serving primarily as a universal second language to promote international understanding, to also advocating for linguistic rights and balanced multilingualism. The ideology shifted from seeing Esperanto as neutral and not intended to replace national languages, to recognizing the need to consider linguistic minorities within states and address linguistic imperialism. More recently, Esperanto is viewed as one option for international communication that can coexist with other languages, rather than being in conflict with English.
Esperanto, a language for a Global Identity Can Esperanto foster European ide...Federico Gobbo
The document discusses Esperanto and its potential to foster European identity. It provides background on Esperanto's origins in the late 19th century amidst hopes for a universal language. Esperanto communities formed across Europe and internationally. However, the two World Wars weakened the Esperanto movement. Today, Esperanto is still used by some communities and families, particularly for its ease of learning. The document describes a small pilot study the author conducted with Esperanto families living in Europe to understand their perspectives on European identity.
This document provides an introduction to phonetics and phonology, the linguistic subfields concerned with speech sounds. It explains that phonetics studies the physical properties of speech sounds, while phonology studies how sounds are represented mentally within languages. The document then introduces the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), which provides symbols to accurately represent all speech sounds across languages. It presents the IPA symbols for the basic consonant and vowel sounds in North American English, explaining the symbols and their pronunciation values. The goal is to establish a systematic way to transcribe sounds beyond English spelling conventions.
Word order and information structure in EsperantoFederico Gobbo
This document summarizes a research proposal on word order and information structure in Esperanto declaratives. The proposal aims to study whether Esperanto word order results more from language transfer from speakers' first languages or from nativization of the language. The methodology involves experimental fieldwork with fluent Esperanto speakers from Romance, Germanic, and Slavic language backgrounds to analyze broad, narrow, and contrastive focus. The analysis will use an existing Minimalist Optimality Theory case study approach adapted for Esperanto. The project offers an original contribution as the first scholarly research on this topic and interface of syntax, phonology, and sociolinguistics in Esperanto.
The document discusses loanwords in English and other languages. It makes 3 key points:
1) Over two-thirds of English vocabulary comes from borrowed words, primarily from Latin, French, and other languages. Loanwords become assimilated into English over time.
2) English exports loanwords to other languages as well. Terms from domains where English dominates, like technology and business, are often borrowed.
3) All languages borrow words, and factors like history, culture and power dynamics influence which words are adopted as loanwords. The process can also involve words being reborrowed back to their original language.
Some French expressions as used in Urhobo: a case study of the terms ‘AVOIR …...Premier Publishers
Expressions are expositions of the mind. They reveal thoughts which otherwise would have remained undisclosed. How these thoughts are expressed differ from language to language and from individual to individual. Even individual expressions can also be different one from the other even though they are expressed in the same language. In some instances, certain similarities and dissimilarities have been found in the phrasal constructions and usage of certain French and Urhobo expressions, even though they do not indicate any semantic divergences. In this study, the difference between some French ‘avoir’ expressions and their Urhobo equivalents will be examine. What happens to the verb ‘avoir’ when the expressions are translated into the Urhobo language? How is the structure of the expression affected by the transfer from one language to the other? This study is prompted by the hope of selling the Urhobo language to others as a means of saving it from extinction. The study will be based on some extracts of the French ‘Avoir …‘ expressions as compared to their Urhobo equivalents. For obvious reasons, the approach in this study will be somewhat eclectic. It will involve individual interviews, and since there will be some elements of translation the study will have recourse to Eugene Nida’s theory of dynamic equivalence.
Turkish Language and Teaching Turkish as a Foreign Languageinventionjournals
Turkish is a leading spoken and written language. Today, foreigners are taking increasingly more interest in Turkish owing to its 1500-year continuous and comprehensive history. However, an adequate background of Turkish in the literature of foreign language teaching and learning does not exist. Therefore, the field of teaching Turkish as a foreign language is relatively new in terms of the innovative methodology of instruction. As a language, Turkish is becoming more essential in education as well as in daily life due to the important role it plays in forming communication chains throughout the world. Turkish became even more popular after the Soviet Union’s break-up in 1991. In recent years, the fields of Turkic studies and teaching Turkish as a foreign language have received more attention throughout the world. The purpose of this study is to analyze some basic characteristics of the Turkish language and the history of teaching the Turkish language.
The document provides an overview of linguistic terminology and concepts, including:
1) It defines basic linguistic terms like nouns, verbs, cases, and discusses language features like grammar.
2) It examines the origins and development of languages, noting similarities between languages like Sanskrit, Latin, and others that suggest a common ancestral language.
3) It outlines the work of early historical linguists who began systematically comparing languages and reconstructing proto-languages.
This document provides an overview of the Indo-European family of languages by describing 11 principal groups: Indian, Iranian, Armenian, Hellenic, Albanian, Italic, Balto-Slavic, Germanic, Celtic, Hittite, and Tocharian. It explains that the parent Indo-European language differentiated and spread before written history, so we have no records of it, but can reconstruct it by comparing descendants. The groups fall into families based on geographical distribution and degree of similarity between languages.
The document discusses the Indo-European language family and its discovery. Key findings include:
1) Sanskrit, an ancient Indian language, was recognized as one of the earliest languages in the Indo-European family in the 18th century.
2) Comparison of verb forms across languages like English, Gothic, Latin, Greek and Sanskrit showed clear similarities confirming a common origin.
3) The Indo-European languages are now grouped into 11 principal branches based on similarities and geographic distributions.
Amarigna & Tigrigna Qal Roots of Russian LanguageLegesse Allyn
Amarigna & Tigrigna Qal Roots of Russian Language: The Not So Distant African Roots of the Russian Language
Authored by Legesse Allyn
https://www.amazon.com/Amarigna-Tigrigna-Roots-Russian-Language/dp/1534891935
List Price: $14.95
8" x 10" (20.32 x 25.4 cm)
Black & White on White paper
88 pages
ISBN-13: 978-1534891937
ISBN-10: 1534891935
BISAC: Language Arts & Disciplines / Linguistics / Historical & Comparative
The Russian language is rooted in the east African,
ancient Egyptian dual languages of Amarigna and Tigrigna. This book provides a small sampling of the not so distant African linguistic roots of the words in Russian.
Amarigna & Tigrigna Qal Roots of Hindi LanguageLegesse Allyn
The Not So Distant African Roots of the Hindi Language
Authored by Legesse Allyn
https://www.amazon.com/Amarigna-Tigrigna-Roots-Hindi-Language/dp/153340335X
List Price: $14.95
8" x 10" (20.32 x 25.4 cm)
Black & White on White paper
94 pages
ISBN-13: 978-1533403353
ISBN-10: 153340335X
BISAC: Language Arts & Disciplines / Linguistics / Etymology
"The Hindi language is rooted in the east African, ancient Egyptian dual languages of Amarigna and Tigrigna. This book provides a small sampling of the not so distant African linguistic roots of the words in Hindi."
http://www.amazon.com/Amarigna-Tigrigna-Roots-Hindi-Language/dp/153340335X
The document discusses the origins of words in English and other languages. It examines a list of words from Old English and considers why some words were lost while others endured. It notes that the oldest words we can trace back are from written Old English texts. Some words from different languages that refer to basic concepts are similar, possibly indicating descent from a common ancestral language, while others are quite different, likely not descended from a common source. Similar words for concepts like 'mother' across unrelated languages allows reconstruction of hypothetical ancestral roots.
The document discusses the origins of words in English and other languages. It examines a list of old English (OE) words and considers why some were lost while others endured. It notes that the oldest words we can trace back are from written Old English texts. Some OE words like "coward" and "dolgbot" have been completely lost, while others like "winter", "god", and "hand" remain as ancestors of modern English words. It suggests that comparing words across related languages can provide clues about even more distant ancestral forms and reconstruct proto-languages from which modern languages descend.
The document discusses the origins of words in English and other languages. It examines a list of Old English words and considers why some were lost while others endured. It notes that the oldest words we can trace back are from written Old English texts. Some words have endured for centuries because they refer to basic concepts of daily life. The document suggests that similarities between words for the same concepts in different languages likely stem from inheritance from a common ancestral language, rather than borrowing. Reconstructing hypothetical roots can help trace words back to a common ancestral form.
This document discusses the origins of words in English and other Indo-European languages. It examines words that have been preserved from Old English and attempts to determine why some words were lost while others endured. It also looks at cognates between basic words across different Indo-European languages and concludes they likely descended from a common ancestral language. Finally, it considers geographic, botanical and cultural data to speculate on the possible location of the original Indo-European homeland.
This document discusses the origins of words in English and other Indo-European languages. It examines words that have been preserved from Old English and attempts to determine why some words were lost while others endured. It also looks at cognates between basic words across different Indo-European languages and concludes they likely descended from a common ancestral language. Finally, it considers geographic, botanical and cultural data to speculate on the possible location of the original Indo-European homeland.
The document discusses the origins of words in English and other languages. It examines a list of old English (OE) words and considers why some were lost while others endured. It notes that the oldest words we can trace back are from written Old English texts. Some OE words like "coward" and "dolgbot" have been completely lost, while others like "winter", "god", and "hand" remain as ancestors of modern English words. It suggests that comparing words across related languages can provide clues about even more distant ancestral forms and reconstruct proto-languages from which modern languages descend.
This document discusses the origins of words in English and other Indo-European languages. It examines words that have been preserved from Old English and attempts to determine why some words were lost while others endured. It also looks at cognates between basic words across different Indo-European languages and concludes they likely descended from a common ancestral language. Finally, it considers geographic, botanical and cultural data to speculate on the possible location of the original Indo-European homeland.
The document describes two language laboratories conducted in a Montessori school in Milan. In the first laboratory, students invented a variant of Europanto, a linguistic pastiche, focusing on vocabulary from different languages. In the second laboratory, students invented a secret language called Markuskica, starting with phonology and morphology. They extracted words from Italian and other languages, added affixes to change meaning, and developed paradigms for new words. The goal of both laboratories was to increase students' metalinguistic awareness of their multilingual repertoire.
Interlinguistics and Esperanto Studies in the new MillenniumFederico Gobbo
Interlinguistics and Esperanto Studies in the new millennium focuses on three areas:
1) The history and philosophy of international auxiliary languages (IALs) like Esperanto, examining ideas of internationality and neutrality over time.
2) Linguistic analyses of Esperanto including morphology, syntax, and sociolinguistic studies of its use and community. Constructive Adpositional Grammars provide a framework.
3) The relationship between Esperanto and artificial intelligence, as Esperanto was used in early machine translation experiments and is now supported by tools like Google Translate.
Esperanto has evolved over time from serving primarily as a universal second language to promote international understanding, to also advocating for linguistic rights and balanced multilingualism. The ideology shifted from seeing Esperanto as neutral and not intended to replace national languages, to recognizing the need to consider linguistic minorities within states and address linguistic imperialism. More recently, Esperanto is viewed as one option for international communication that can coexist with other languages, rather than being in conflict with English.
Esperanto, a language for a Global Identity Can Esperanto foster European ide...Federico Gobbo
The document discusses Esperanto and its potential to foster European identity. It provides background on Esperanto's origins in the late 19th century amidst hopes for a universal language. Esperanto communities formed across Europe and internationally. However, the two World Wars weakened the Esperanto movement. Today, Esperanto is still used by some communities and families, particularly for its ease of learning. The document describes a small pilot study the author conducted with Esperanto families living in Europe to understand their perspectives on European identity.
This document provides an introduction to phonetics and phonology, the linguistic subfields concerned with speech sounds. It explains that phonetics studies the physical properties of speech sounds, while phonology studies how sounds are represented mentally within languages. The document then introduces the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), which provides symbols to accurately represent all speech sounds across languages. It presents the IPA symbols for the basic consonant and vowel sounds in North American English, explaining the symbols and their pronunciation values. The goal is to establish a systematic way to transcribe sounds beyond English spelling conventions.
Word order and information structure in EsperantoFederico Gobbo
This document summarizes a research proposal on word order and information structure in Esperanto declaratives. The proposal aims to study whether Esperanto word order results more from language transfer from speakers' first languages or from nativization of the language. The methodology involves experimental fieldwork with fluent Esperanto speakers from Romance, Germanic, and Slavic language backgrounds to analyze broad, narrow, and contrastive focus. The analysis will use an existing Minimalist Optimality Theory case study approach adapted for Esperanto. The project offers an original contribution as the first scholarly research on this topic and interface of syntax, phonology, and sociolinguistics in Esperanto.
The document discusses loanwords in English and other languages. It makes 3 key points:
1) Over two-thirds of English vocabulary comes from borrowed words, primarily from Latin, French, and other languages. Loanwords become assimilated into English over time.
2) English exports loanwords to other languages as well. Terms from domains where English dominates, like technology and business, are often borrowed.
3) All languages borrow words, and factors like history, culture and power dynamics influence which words are adopted as loanwords. The process can also involve words being reborrowed back to their original language.
Some French expressions as used in Urhobo: a case study of the terms ‘AVOIR …...Premier Publishers
Expressions are expositions of the mind. They reveal thoughts which otherwise would have remained undisclosed. How these thoughts are expressed differ from language to language and from individual to individual. Even individual expressions can also be different one from the other even though they are expressed in the same language. In some instances, certain similarities and dissimilarities have been found in the phrasal constructions and usage of certain French and Urhobo expressions, even though they do not indicate any semantic divergences. In this study, the difference between some French ‘avoir’ expressions and their Urhobo equivalents will be examine. What happens to the verb ‘avoir’ when the expressions are translated into the Urhobo language? How is the structure of the expression affected by the transfer from one language to the other? This study is prompted by the hope of selling the Urhobo language to others as a means of saving it from extinction. The study will be based on some extracts of the French ‘Avoir …‘ expressions as compared to their Urhobo equivalents. For obvious reasons, the approach in this study will be somewhat eclectic. It will involve individual interviews, and since there will be some elements of translation the study will have recourse to Eugene Nida’s theory of dynamic equivalence.
Turkish Language and Teaching Turkish as a Foreign Languageinventionjournals
Turkish is a leading spoken and written language. Today, foreigners are taking increasingly more interest in Turkish owing to its 1500-year continuous and comprehensive history. However, an adequate background of Turkish in the literature of foreign language teaching and learning does not exist. Therefore, the field of teaching Turkish as a foreign language is relatively new in terms of the innovative methodology of instruction. As a language, Turkish is becoming more essential in education as well as in daily life due to the important role it plays in forming communication chains throughout the world. Turkish became even more popular after the Soviet Union’s break-up in 1991. In recent years, the fields of Turkic studies and teaching Turkish as a foreign language have received more attention throughout the world. The purpose of this study is to analyze some basic characteristics of the Turkish language and the history of teaching the Turkish language.
The document provides an overview of linguistic terminology and concepts, including:
1) It defines basic linguistic terms like nouns, verbs, cases, and discusses language features like grammar.
2) It examines the origins and development of languages, noting similarities between languages like Sanskrit, Latin, and others that suggest a common ancestral language.
3) It outlines the work of early historical linguists who began systematically comparing languages and reconstructing proto-languages.
This document provides an overview of the Indo-European family of languages by describing 11 principal groups: Indian, Iranian, Armenian, Hellenic, Albanian, Italic, Balto-Slavic, Germanic, Celtic, Hittite, and Tocharian. It explains that the parent Indo-European language differentiated and spread before written history, so we have no records of it, but can reconstruct it by comparing descendants. The groups fall into families based on geographical distribution and degree of similarity between languages.
The document discusses the Indo-European language family and its discovery. Key findings include:
1) Sanskrit, an ancient Indian language, was recognized as one of the earliest languages in the Indo-European family in the 18th century.
2) Comparison of verb forms across languages like English, Gothic, Latin, Greek and Sanskrit showed clear similarities confirming a common origin.
3) The Indo-European languages are now grouped into 11 principal branches based on similarities and geographic distributions.
Amarigna & Tigrigna Qal Roots of Russian LanguageLegesse Allyn
Amarigna & Tigrigna Qal Roots of Russian Language: The Not So Distant African Roots of the Russian Language
Authored by Legesse Allyn
https://www.amazon.com/Amarigna-Tigrigna-Roots-Russian-Language/dp/1534891935
List Price: $14.95
8" x 10" (20.32 x 25.4 cm)
Black & White on White paper
88 pages
ISBN-13: 978-1534891937
ISBN-10: 1534891935
BISAC: Language Arts & Disciplines / Linguistics / Historical & Comparative
The Russian language is rooted in the east African,
ancient Egyptian dual languages of Amarigna and Tigrigna. This book provides a small sampling of the not so distant African linguistic roots of the words in Russian.
Amarigna & Tigrigna Qal Roots of Hindi LanguageLegesse Allyn
The Not So Distant African Roots of the Hindi Language
Authored by Legesse Allyn
https://www.amazon.com/Amarigna-Tigrigna-Roots-Hindi-Language/dp/153340335X
List Price: $14.95
8" x 10" (20.32 x 25.4 cm)
Black & White on White paper
94 pages
ISBN-13: 978-1533403353
ISBN-10: 153340335X
BISAC: Language Arts & Disciplines / Linguistics / Etymology
"The Hindi language is rooted in the east African, ancient Egyptian dual languages of Amarigna and Tigrigna. This book provides a small sampling of the not so distant African linguistic roots of the words in Hindi."
http://www.amazon.com/Amarigna-Tigrigna-Roots-Hindi-Language/dp/153340335X
The document discusses the origins of words in English and other languages. It examines a list of words from Old English and considers why some words were lost while others endured. It notes that the oldest words we can trace back are from written Old English texts. Some words from different languages that refer to basic concepts are similar, possibly indicating descent from a common ancestral language, while others are quite different, likely not descended from a common source. Similar words for concepts like 'mother' across unrelated languages allows reconstruction of hypothetical ancestral roots.
The document discusses the origins of words in English and other languages. It examines a list of old English (OE) words and considers why some were lost while others endured. It notes that the oldest words we can trace back are from written Old English texts. Some OE words like "coward" and "dolgbot" have been completely lost, while others like "winter", "god", and "hand" remain as ancestors of modern English words. It suggests that comparing words across related languages can provide clues about even more distant ancestral forms and reconstruct proto-languages from which modern languages descend.
The document discusses the origins of words in English and other languages. It examines a list of Old English words and considers why some were lost while others endured. It notes that the oldest words we can trace back are from written Old English texts. Some words have endured for centuries because they refer to basic concepts of daily life. The document suggests that similarities between words for the same concepts in different languages likely stem from inheritance from a common ancestral language, rather than borrowing. Reconstructing hypothetical roots can help trace words back to a common ancestral form.
This document discusses the origins of words in English and other Indo-European languages. It examines words that have been preserved from Old English and attempts to determine why some words were lost while others endured. It also looks at cognates between basic words across different Indo-European languages and concludes they likely descended from a common ancestral language. Finally, it considers geographic, botanical and cultural data to speculate on the possible location of the original Indo-European homeland.
This document discusses the origins of words in English and other Indo-European languages. It examines words that have been preserved from Old English and attempts to determine why some words were lost while others endured. It also looks at cognates between basic words across different Indo-European languages and concludes they likely descended from a common ancestral language. Finally, it considers geographic, botanical and cultural data to speculate on the possible location of the original Indo-European homeland.
The document discusses the origins of words in English and other languages. It examines a list of old English (OE) words and considers why some were lost while others endured. It notes that the oldest words we can trace back are from written Old English texts. Some OE words like "coward" and "dolgbot" have been completely lost, while others like "winter", "god", and "hand" remain as ancestors of modern English words. It suggests that comparing words across related languages can provide clues about even more distant ancestral forms and reconstruct proto-languages from which modern languages descend.
This document discusses the origins of words in English and other Indo-European languages. It examines words that have been preserved from Old English and attempts to determine why some words were lost while others endured. It also looks at cognates between basic words across different Indo-European languages and concludes they likely descended from a common ancestral language. Finally, it considers geographic, botanical and cultural data to speculate on the possible location of the original Indo-European homeland.
This document discusses the origins of words in English and other Indo-European languages. It examines words that have been preserved from Old English and attempts to determine why some words were lost while others endured. It also looks at cognates between basic words across different Indo-European languages and concludes they likely descended from a common ancestral language. Finally, it considers geographic, botanical and cultural data to speculate on the possible location of the original Indo-European homeland.
This document discusses the origins of words in English and other Indo-European languages. It examines old English words and their modern English descendants to understand Anglo-Saxon culture. It also analyzes cognates across Indo-European languages to reconstruct proto-Indo-European, their hypothesized common ancestral language. Similar basic words across languages suggest inheritance rather than borrowing. Comparing referents represented suggests the original Indo-European homeland was in a northern temperate region near the sea and forests.
A timeline of the history of linguistics Jasmin Cruz
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Sumerian is one of the oldest attested languages, dating back to at least 2900 BC. It was spoken in ancient Mesopotamia, in modern-day Iraq. The Hindu tradition of linguistics originated in the first millennium BC and was stimulated by changes in Sanskrit, the sacred language of religious texts in India. Plato's dialogue Cratylus discusses the origins of language and is considered one of his middle period works.
Amarigna & Tigrigna Qal Roots of Hebrew LanguageLegesse Allyn
Also read "Amarigna & Tigrigna Qal Genesis" re-translations of Genesis at...
https://www.slideshare.net/LegesseAllyn/amarigna-tigrigna-qal-genesis-volume-i-97564062
https://www.slideshare.net/LegesseAllyn/amarigna-tgrigna-qal-genesis-volume-ii
The Not So Distant African Roots of the Hebrew Language
Authored by Legesse Allyn
https://www.amazon.com/Amarigna-Tigrigna-Roots-Hebrew-Language/dp/1534708774
List Price: $14.95
8" x 10" (20.32 x 25.4 cm)
Black & White on White paper
82 pages
ISBN-13: 978-1534708778
ISBN-10: 1534708774
BISAC: Language Arts & Disciplines / Linguistics / Historical & Comparative
"The Hebrew language is rooted in the east African, ancient Egyptian dual languages of Amarigna and Tigrigna. This book provides a small sampling of the not so distant African linguistic roots of the words in Hebrew."
http://books.ancientgebts.org
Amarigna & Tigrigna Qal Roots of Japanese LanguageLegesse Allyn
The Not So Distant African Roots of the Japanese Language
Authored by Legesse Allyn
https://www.amazon.com/Amarigna-Tigrigna-Roots-Japanese-Language/dp/1533493561
List Price: $14.95
8" x 10" (20.32 x 25.4 cm)
Black & White on White paper
82 pages
ISBN-13: 978-1533493569
ISBN-10: 1533493561
BISAC: Language Arts & Disciplines / Linguistics / Etymology
"The Japanese language is rooted in the east African, ancient Egyptian dual languages of Amarigna and Tigrigna. This book provides a small sampling of the not so distant African linguistic roots of the words in Japanese."
http://www.amazon.com/Amarigna-Tigrigna-Roots-Japanese-Language/dp/1533493561
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1–2 Gyr after collision, and certainly not later than 3 Gyr. This is further evidence that the progenitor of the ‘last major merger’
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the last few Gyr, consistent with the body of work surrounding the VRM.
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3. 2
Inhoudsopgawe
Inleiding 3
Die Germane 4
Deutsch, Diets, Duits, Dutch, Duusman, Teuton 5
Verskille tussen Proto-Germaans en Proto-Indo-Europees 5
Germaans vs ander Indo-Europese tale 5
Die Germaanse Konsonantverkuiwings 6
Unieke Proto-Germaanse terme vs PIE terme 7
Nie-Indo-Europese Lekseme in Proto-Germaans wat in Afrikaans voortleef 8
Germaanse woorde van Kaukasiese oorsprong 9
Germaanse woorde met Kartveelse comparanda 10
Germaanse woorde sonder klaarblyklike comparanda 11
Leksikale stratigrafie van Germaans 12
Leenwoorde uit Kelties en Indo-Iraans 13
Die Hartland van Proto-Germaans 14
Sub-, super- en adstratum 15
Lüneberger Heide 16
Spore van verlore tale 17
Atlanties of Semitidies as adstratum 19
Die Onse Vader in Wulfila se Gothiese alfabet 20
Bibliografie 21
Indeks 23
4. 3
Inleiding
Sowat 46% van die wêreldbevolking – 3 640 000 000 mense – het ‘n Indo-Europese moedertaal.
Daar is ongeveer 445 lewende Indo-Europese tale, waarvan twee derdes tot die Indo-Iraanse tak
behoort. Die Indo-Europese taalfamilie sluit groot wêreldtale soos Engels, Spaans en Hindi in, wat
onderskeidelik tot die Germaanse, Romaanse en Indo-Iraanse groepe behoort. Dis die deeglikste
bestudeerde taalfamilie ter wêreld, en rekonstruksie van die prototaal is tot ˈn groot mate
afgehandel, sodat daar vandag redelike sekerheid bestaan oor die klankstelsel, woordeskat en
morfologie van Proto-Indo-Europees.
Die Germaanse familie het sowat 520 miljoen moedertaalsprekers (2021) en is die dominante
familie op vyf kontinente. Wes-Germaans bestaan uit Afrikaans, Alemannies, Engels, Fries, Duits,
Nederduits, Nederlands-Vlaams, Skots en Yiddish. Die lede van Noord-Germaans is Deens,
Faroëes, Noorweegs, Sweeds en Yslands.
Reeds vroeg in die geskiedenis van Indo-Europese studies, het dit geblyk dat Germaans op
noemenswaardige wyse van die klassieke Indo-Europese patroon afwyk. ‘n Proses van
klankverskuiwings het teen die middel van die eerste millennium vC – toe Proto-Germaans sy
finale vorm aangeneem het – beduidende verskille met sy portuurtale soos Proto-Kelties, Antieke
Grieks, Latyn en Sanskrit meegebring.
5. 4
Die Germane
Die eerste verwysing na Germane was deur Pytheas van Massilia in die vierde eeu vC, maar
Julius Caesar was die eerste om hulle as ‘n etniese groep van die Kelte te onderskei. In Boek VI
van Die Galliese Oorlog (rondom 55vC) skryf Caesar oor die Germane. Die Romeinse
geskiedkskrywer Publius Cornelius Tacitus (nC 56— c. 120 nC), voorsien in sy werk Germania ‘n
breedvoerige beskrywing van die stamme. Tacitus verwys na “Sueviese tale” as ‘n manier om te
bepaal of ‘n groep Germaans was.
Dit blyk dat die Germane in Caesar se tyd steeds jag- en versamel beoefen het, benewens
veeteelt en landbou. Tussen die Rhyn en die Main het die Batavi, Bruchteri, Chamavi, en Chatti
gewoon, en teen die Noordee die Chauci, Angles, Varini, en Friese. Van die middel Elbe tot by die
Oder was daar die Suebi, Marcomanni, Quadi, Lombarde, en Semnones, en tussen die Oder en
die Vistula die Vandale, Boergondiёrs en Gote. Die Sujones en Gauti het verder noord in
Skandinawiё gewoon.
Volgens Tacitus het gesinne op plase gewoon (Goties þaurp 'land’, later þorp; ‘plaas’ se betekenis
het eers later in ‘dorp’ verander). Die woord vīcus wat na dorpe verwys, is by Latyn geleen, en
oorleef in Afrikaans as ‘wyk’. Die woord vir ‘stad’ kom van ‘n woord wat ‘toring’ beteken en oorleef
vandag as ‘burg.’
Verskille tussen Proto-Germaans en Proto-Indo-Europees
1 Die PIE werkwoordstelsel is vereenvoudig waar dit aspek en tyd aangaan
2 Germaans het ‘n verledetydsvorm met ‘n dentale suffiks ontwikkel
3 Indo-Europese /a:/ word Germaanse /o:/.
4 In PIE was die klem vry en beweeglik, en kon dus op enige lettergreep val. In PG val die klem
deurgaans op die eerste lettergreep, en onbeklemde lettergrepe is verswak en verloor.
Daardie lettergrepe was meestal uitgange en suffikse.
5 Die Germaanse Konsonantverskuiwings
6 Die Proto-Germaanse woordeskat bevat elemente wat nie in die ander Indo-Europese tale
voorkom nie.
6. 5
Teuton, Duits, Diets, Dutch, Duusman
Proto-Indo-Europees *tewtéh (“mense, stam”), Proto-Germaans *þeudō (“mense”). Die reflekse
van die PIE is: Ou Iers “tuoth”, Goties “þiuda”, Litous “tauta”, Ou Engels ‘theod’ en ‘theodisc’ “van
die mense”, waar “isc” later “ish” geword het. Teutone (theudanoz) was ‘n stam wat naby die mond
van die Elbe gewoon het.
Germaans vs ander Indo-Europese tale
Vader Pitar in Sanskrit, Pater in Latyn
Vis Piscis in Latyn
Hond Canis in Latyn
Honderd Centum in Latyn, satem in Sanskrit
Twee Dva in Sanskrit, Duo in Latyn
Knie Genu in Latyn
7. 6
Die Germaanse Konsonantverkuiwings
Grimm se Wet (1822) bestaan uit drie hoof-klankverskuiwings:
Geaspireerde stemhebbende sluitklanke verloor aspirasie: bh dg gh en word b d g
Stemlose sluitklanke word stemlose skuurlanke: p t k word f θ x/h
Stemhebbende sluitklanke word stemloos: b d g word p t k met die uitsondering dat niks verander
waar ‘n stemlose sluitklank deur ‘n stemlose stemlose sluitklank gevolg word nie; soos in /ster/ en
nie /stθer/ nie.
Hierdie verskuiwing het aspirasie as onderskeidende kenmerk uitgeskakel.
Verner se Wet (1875): Die stemlose skuurklanke hier bo word stemhebbbend in ‘n stemryke
omgewing:
f > v
θ > ð
k > g
en die stemlose skuurklank /s/ word /z/ wat later weer in /r/ verander
8. 7
Unieke Proto-Germaanse terme vs PIE terme
PG PIE Afr
*aiks *perkwos eik
*beron *r
̥ tko beer
*bragnam *mosghos brein
*bullon *tauros bul
*fingraz *polikosa vinger
*hursa *gheyos, hekwos perd
*kuningaz *regs koning
*lambaz *hegwosnos lam
*silubra *argent silwer
*skuldro *homsos skouer
9. 8
ˈn Aantal nie-Indo-Europese lekseme in Proto-Germaans wat uit ˈn
substratum kom en in Afrikaans voortleef
*aik eik(eboom)
*akrana akker(boom)
*apan aap
*arut erts
*arwīt ertjie
*baunō boon
*braidaz breed
*drenan dreun
*driŋkɑnɑ̃ drink (om te)
*ēbund aand
*ebura (vark)beer
*fata vat, houer
*gait bok
*hakan haak
*hale/haluþ held
*hnippōn knyp
*hnut neut
*hringa ring, sirkel
*kattōn kat
*krabita krap, kreef
*kumb/kumpan kom, bak
*lauba lower
*magan maag
*managa menigte
*pakka pak
*pōla poel
*rōbjōn raap
*samda sand
10. 9
*silubra silwer
*steuro bees, bul
*swappan swam, paddastoel
*swebla swael
*þeura bul
*ufna oond
*wisund oer-os
Germaanse woorde van Kaukasiese oorsprong
*aban man
*arēn arend
*baka rug (Engels: back)
*barku bas
*basya, *bazya bessie
*bayna been
*blōda bloed
*brayda breed
*brakka(n) brak
*brūdi bruid
*brust bors
*bukkam bok
clud wolk
*draugya droog
*handu hand
*klawō klou
*landa land
*lūs luis
*magan maag
*managa baie
*manna man
*sanda sand
*skuldra skouer
*slēpa slaap (om te)
*stayna steen
*swarta swart
*swimm swem (om te)
*trahna traan
*tungō tong
11. 10
Arnold Lyongrün Weg in der Lüneburger Heide
Germaanse woorde met Kartveelse comparanda
*daga dag
*dumba dom
*hwelpa welpie
*lull om aan die slaap te sus
*mugjō muggie
*saywō see
*smauki rook
*tai(h)wōn toon
*tehun tien
*two twee
13. 12
Leksikale stratigrafie van Germaans
Volgens Faurnet se Lexical Stratigraphy of Germanic, is die diepste laag leenwoorde in PG (wat
ook in ander IE-tale voorkom) van Kartveelse oorsprong, gevolg deur ‘n laag van Kaukasiese
oorsprong.
Daarna volg Kartveelse lenings net in Germaans, Grieks en Latyn, en Kaukasiese lenings net in
Germaans, Italiaans en Kelties.
Jonger lae is die Kaukasiese en Kartveelse terme wat net tot Germaans en Balto-Slawies beperk
is, en eindelik ‘n laag Kartveelse en Kaukasiese leenwoorde wat net tot Germaans beperk is.
Kartveelse leenwoorde wat slegs in Proto-Germaans voorkom, sluit in:
*daga- m ‘day’ ~ Georgian dġe ‘day’
*dumba- ‘dumb’ ~ Kartvelian *dum- ‘silent’
Kaukasiese leenwoorde wat slegs in Proto-Germaans voorkom, sluit in:
*baka- rug, *barku- bas, *basya-, *bazya- ‘bessie’, *bayna- been, *brayda- ‘breed’,
*brūdi- f ‘bruide’, *brust- f ‘bors, *gīsla- m ‘’skag , gaiza- spies, ,
*hleuza- ‘wang, *hnefan- ‘vuis, *hrugya- m ‘rug, *lauba- blaar
14. 13
Faurnet se Scenario vir Germaans
Nadat die Anatoliese groep (Nesities/Hetiet van Hattusas, Luwies, Lidies, Lisies, Karies)
weggebreek het, het die res van Indo-Europees interaksie met Kartveels en tot ‘n mindere mate
met Kaukasies gehad.
Later het die Indo-Europese groep in twee verdeel, Centum (Germaans, Italies, Kelties, ens) en
Satem (Balties, Slawies, Indo-Iraans, ens).
Die Centum-groep het steeds Kartveelse leenwoorde opgeneem, sowel as Kaukasiese woorde
wat steeds in Baskies voorkom.
Dit suggereer dat Kaukasiese tale wyd verspreid oor Wes-Europa voorgekom het.
Nadat die Centum groep verdeel het in Italies, Kelties, Germaans en Grieks, het Germaans steeds
Kaukasiese terme opgeneem.
Nadat Germaans in Noordelike en Westelike takke vedeel het, het albei steeds Kaukasiese
woorde opgeneem.
Leenwoorde uit Kelties en Indo-Iraans
Proto-Germaans se leenwoorde uit Indo-Europese sustertale kom hoofsaaklik uit Kelties en Indo-
Iraans. Germane en Kelte was eeue lank bure en het ‘n Noordwes-Europese kultuur gedeel, ‘n
situasie wat gewoonlik met ‘n hoë vlak van tweetaligheid gepaard gaan. Oos van die Germane
was daar in historiese tye steeds sprekers van Iraanse tale in die Balkans en Oekraïene, soos die
Sarmatiërs en Alane.
Die konsensus is dat Oeraliese tale in die noorde van die Skandinawiese skiereiland gepraat is
voor die koms van Indo-Europees, en heel moontlik ook rondom die Baltiese See. Die Oeraliese
tale soos Estnies, Saami en Fins het egter meer woorde by Proto-Germaans geleen as andersom.
Die Oeraliese invloed manifesteer in die klankstelsel en die morfologie van Proto-Germaans, nie
soveel in die woordeskat nie. Prominente Oeraliste het selfs al beweer dat Germaans die resultaat
is van ‘n Indo-Europese dialek wat deur Oeraliese sprekers as moedertaal aangeneem is.
15. 14
Die Hartland van Proto-Germaans
Die Wessenstadt- en/of Jastorfkulture van 800 – 300 vC. Die Wessenstadtkultuur (800 – 600 vC)
op die Lüneburger Heideland is ‘n argeologiese merker van Hallstatt "C". Die oorspronklike Heimat
was tussen die Erzebirge, Thüringerwald, Elbe-, en Allerriviere. Die verspreiding van die bevolking
is bepaal deur die turfmoerasse wat destyds oor groot dele van die streek voorgekom het.
Die noordelike deel van Neder-Sakse bestaan uit die Noord-Duitse Vlakte. Aan die noordweste is
die kus van die Noordsee en die sewe Oos-Friesiese eilande. In die verre weste is Emsland, ˈn
ylbevolkte streek wat aan Nederland grens en wat voorheen grootliks moeraswêreld was. In die
noordooste is die Lüneburg Heideland (Lüneburger Heide), ˈn natuurreservaat omring deur die
Elbe-, Drawehn-, Aller- en Wümmeriviere. Na die suide lê die Laer-Sakse-Heuwels wat in hulle
breër omvang die Weser- en Leineheuwels insluit.
Weens snelle bevolkingsgroei het die Proto-Germaanse gebied teen 500 vC na die suide en
weste van Neder-Sakse, sowel as die Harzberge, die laer Rhyn en Thuringia uitgebrei. Verdere
ekspansie het die Proto-Germane deur Schleswig-Holstein na die ooste van Jutland in Denemarke
geneem, en van daar na Swede en Noorweë.
16. 15
Sub-, Super- en Adstratum
ˈn Substratum verwys na die oorspronklike taal van ˈn bevolking wat van taal verwissel het,
gewoonlik na ˈn lang periode van tweetaligheid. In die aanleer van die nuwe taal, bring die
sprekers van die oorspronlike taal elemente van die ou taal in die nuwe een in, byvoorbeeld
uitspraak en konsepte in die ou taal waarvoor daar nie terme in die nuwe taal bestaan nie.
By die Germaanse taalfamilie verwys die term
substratum na leksikon-items en fonologiese elemente
wat waarskynlik nie van PIE geërf is nie. Volgens die
substratum-teorie kom die elemente uit ‘n vroeër
spraakgemeenskap wat tussen die Indo-Europeërs
gewoon het. Die Germaanse dialek van PIE het die
superstratum geword, wat deur die sprekers van Oud-
Europees aangeleer is.
Kenmerke van substratum-leenwoorde sluit in
fonologiese of morfologiese patrone wat nie in die
superstratumtaal (Germaanse dialek van PIE) bestaan
het nie, ongewone fonologie en ongewone wyses van
woordvorming.
Woorde vir diere en plante waarvoor die nuwe taal (Germaanse dialek van PIE) nie terme het nie,
is natuurlike keuses vir oordrag. Die optimale semantiese terreine vir leenwoorde is: riviername,
diername, dierprodukte, plantname, basiese implemente, eienskappe van die natuurlike
omgewing, menslike aktiwiteite, gevoelens en persepsies.
Woorde vir landskapkenmerke soos mere, moerasse, poele, stroompies, fonteine, velde, vlaktes,
heuwels, randjies, en huishoudelike implemente soos potte, panne, bakke en lepels word
gewoonlik in die nuwe taal opgeneem.
18. 17
Spore van Verlore Tale
I Die Taal van Riviername
Dis die heel oudste laag van substrata wat in riviername uitgeken kan word, van Ierland in die
weste tot by Belarus in die ooste, Spanje in die suide en Skandinawië in die noorde. Dis heel
eerste deur Hans Krahe waargeneem wat dit as Indo-Europees beskou het. Die Leidense Skool
van Historiese Taalkunde beskou dit as ˈn Nie-Indo-Europese taal, en beweer dat dit min invloed
op die later Europese tale gehad het.
Die wortel ISER verskyn in riviername soos die Ijser (Nederland), Aire (Yorkshire), Oise
(Frankryk), Saar (Duitsland), Iza (Roemenie) en Esaro (Italië). Die wortel DUR verskyn in onder
meer Eder, Oder, Dordogne, Douro en Drava.
Volgens Theo Vennemann se Waskoniese teorie, is dit ˈn taal wat aan ˈn oer-oue voorouer van
Baskies verwant is. Baskies se naaste verwante is die Noordoos-Kaukasiese tale van Dagestan,
Tsjetsjnië en Ingoesjetië.
II Die Taal van Voëlname
Hierdie taal staan ook bekend as Substratum Laag A1 van die Leiden-Skool, en word gekenmerk
deur ˈn klinker /a/ wat dikwels as beklemtoonde voorvoegsel verskyn het.
Die taal het oor skuurklanke beskik, soos /x/ = Afrikaanse G, en Engelse th soos in ’that’.
ˈn Hoë persentasie woorde het met /k/ begin. Die diftong /aə/ word /a/ in Britse Kelties en /ai/ in
Germaans:
*laəwađ = lewerik
*astrap = weerlig
*krexar = kraanvoël
*spraew = spreeu
*akr = akker(boom)
*kekan = kaak
*hod = hoed
*kagila = kegel
19. 18
III Die Taal van Dubbelkonsonante
Laag A2 van die Leidense Skool word as
substratum regdeur noordelike Europa onder
Indo-Europese sowel as Oeraliese tale gevind. In
PIE was daar geen verdubbeling van
medeklinkers nie, dus word vermoed dat die reël
in PG wat bepaal dat ˈn kort klinker voor ˈn
dubbelkonsonant, en ˈn lang klinker voor ˈn
enkelkonsonant verskyn, van dié taal af kom.
Wisseling van die finale medeklinker, soos p/k in
woorde soos Nederlands: stronk, stromp, Eng:
strip, strike of Afr: streep, streek. ˈn Ander
wisseling behels woorde wat met /kn/ of /kl/
begin, soos klim en kleef, knap en knak en
knaag, knou. Verdere voorbeelde is
dobber/doop/duik/diep sowel as suig/suip en
slaap/sluimer.
20. 19
Atlanties of Semitidies as Adstratum
ˈn Adstratum is ˈn taal soos Latyn wat alle Europese tale met woordeskat verryk het. Dis ˈn
prestige-taal wat gewoonlik deur ˈn uitgebreide literatuur, kultuurskat en spirituele tradisie
ondersteun word. ˈn Adstratum bied dus ˈn woordewieg waaruit ˈn taal sy woordeskat kan aanvul
en sy semantiese nuanses kan verryk. ˈn Adstratum het gewoonlik geen effek op die morfologie of
klankstelsel van die tale aan wie hy woorde skenk nie.
Volgens Theo Vennemann was daar ook ˈn Semitiese taal wat as ˈn adstratum eerder as
substratum gedien het, net soos Latyn op Engels. Dit kan niks anders wees as die Fenisiese
dialek van Kartago nie. Gedurende die eerste millennium vC het Kartago wyd en syd in die
Atlantiese Oseaan handel gedryf, van Wes-Afrika tot by Skandinawië.
Atlanties sluit in plekname soos Solent, Solund, Isles of Scilly, en die name van Hebridiese eilande
soos Thanet, Uist, Iona en Sark. Die woord by vir heuningby en imbi vir swerm bye.
Die woord adel(stand), en die woorde appel, harp, heer, volk, oewer, ploeg en huis het Fenisiese
ekwivalente. Oorlogvoering word verteenwoordig deur woorde soos swaard, skild en wapen.
22. 21
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