This ppt describes some concepts in thermodynamics like entropy, change in entropy, change in entropy in reversible process, second law of thermodynamics, T-S diagram, Third law of thermodynamics, Heat death of universe, etc.
this is my presentation about 2nd law of thermodynamic. this is part of engineering thermodynamic in mechanical engineering. here discussed about heat transfer, heat engines, thermal efficiency of heat pumps and refrigerator and its equation for perfect work done with best figure and table wise discription, entropy and change in entropy, isentropic process for turbines and compressor and many more.
In this PPT have have covered
1. Basic thermodynamics definition
2. Thermodynamics law
3. Properties , cycle, Process
4. Derivation of the Process
5.Formula for the numericals.
This topic is use full for those students who want to study basic thermodynamics as a part of their University syllabus.
Most of the university having basic Mechanical engineering as a subject and in this subject Thermodynamics is a topic so by this PPT our aim is to give presentable knowledge of the subject
Psychrometry & Air Conditioning: Psychrometry, psychrometry chart and various psychometric processes, comfort and industrial air conditioning, effective temperature and comfort chart, unitary and central air conditioning systems.
Introduction to the second law
Thermal energy reservoirs
Heat engines
Thermal efficiency
The 2nd law: Kelvin-Planck statement
Refrigerators and heat pumps
Coefficient of performance (COP)
The 2nd law: Clasius statement
Perpetual motion machines
Reversible and irreversible processes
Irreversibility's, Internal and externally reversible processes
The Carnot cycle
The reversed Carnot cycle
The Carnot principles
The thermodynamic temperature scale
The Carnot heat engine
The quality of energy
The Carnot refrigerator and heat pump
this is my presentation about 2nd law of thermodynamic. this is part of engineering thermodynamic in mechanical engineering. here discussed about heat transfer, heat engines, thermal efficiency of heat pumps and refrigerator and its equation for perfect work done with best figure and table wise discription, entropy and change in entropy, isentropic process for turbines and compressor and many more.
In this PPT have have covered
1. Basic thermodynamics definition
2. Thermodynamics law
3. Properties , cycle, Process
4. Derivation of the Process
5.Formula for the numericals.
This topic is use full for those students who want to study basic thermodynamics as a part of their University syllabus.
Most of the university having basic Mechanical engineering as a subject and in this subject Thermodynamics is a topic so by this PPT our aim is to give presentable knowledge of the subject
Psychrometry & Air Conditioning: Psychrometry, psychrometry chart and various psychometric processes, comfort and industrial air conditioning, effective temperature and comfort chart, unitary and central air conditioning systems.
Introduction to the second law
Thermal energy reservoirs
Heat engines
Thermal efficiency
The 2nd law: Kelvin-Planck statement
Refrigerators and heat pumps
Coefficient of performance (COP)
The 2nd law: Clasius statement
Perpetual motion machines
Reversible and irreversible processes
Irreversibility's, Internal and externally reversible processes
The Carnot cycle
The reversed Carnot cycle
The Carnot principles
The thermodynamic temperature scale
The Carnot heat engine
The quality of energy
The Carnot refrigerator and heat pump
SSL8 Mass & Energy Analysis of Control SystemsKeith Vaugh
Conservation of mass
Mass and volume flow rates
Mass balance for a steady flow process
Mass balance for incompressible flow
Flow work and the energy of a flowing fluid
Energy transport by mass
Energy analysis of steady flow systems
Steady flow engineering devices
Nozzles and diffusers
Turbines and compressors
Throttling valves
Mixing chambers and heat exchangers
Pipe and duct flow
Energy analysis of unsteady flow processes
Physical Chemistry; Exact differentials, state function, Joule Thomson's experiment, derivation of Joule Thomson's coefficient, its significance and applications, inversion temperature.
first law of therodynamics, statement of second law, carnot heat engine,efficiency, concept of entropy, variation of entropy,phase transition,enropy change for reversible and irreversible process
SSL8 Mass & Energy Analysis of Control SystemsKeith Vaugh
Conservation of mass
Mass and volume flow rates
Mass balance for a steady flow process
Mass balance for incompressible flow
Flow work and the energy of a flowing fluid
Energy transport by mass
Energy analysis of steady flow systems
Steady flow engineering devices
Nozzles and diffusers
Turbines and compressors
Throttling valves
Mixing chambers and heat exchangers
Pipe and duct flow
Energy analysis of unsteady flow processes
Physical Chemistry; Exact differentials, state function, Joule Thomson's experiment, derivation of Joule Thomson's coefficient, its significance and applications, inversion temperature.
first law of therodynamics, statement of second law, carnot heat engine,efficiency, concept of entropy, variation of entropy,phase transition,enropy change for reversible and irreversible process
System, property, work and heat interactions, zeroth law, first law of thermodynamics, application of first law to closed systems and flow processes. Thermodynamic properties of fluids. Second law of thermodynamics, Carnot cycle, temperature scale, Clausis inequality, entropy increase, availability.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
(May 29th, 2024) Advancements in Intravital Microscopy- Insights for Preclini...Scintica Instrumentation
Intravital microscopy (IVM) is a powerful tool utilized to study cellular behavior over time and space in vivo. Much of our understanding of cell biology has been accomplished using various in vitro and ex vivo methods; however, these studies do not necessarily reflect the natural dynamics of biological processes. Unlike traditional cell culture or fixed tissue imaging, IVM allows for the ultra-fast high-resolution imaging of cellular processes over time and space and were studied in its natural environment. Real-time visualization of biological processes in the context of an intact organism helps maintain physiological relevance and provide insights into the progression of disease, response to treatments or developmental processes.
In this webinar we give an overview of advanced applications of the IVM system in preclinical research. IVIM technology is a provider of all-in-one intravital microscopy systems and solutions optimized for in vivo imaging of live animal models at sub-micron resolution. The system’s unique features and user-friendly software enables researchers to probe fast dynamic biological processes such as immune cell tracking, cell-cell interaction as well as vascularization and tumor metastasis with exceptional detail. This webinar will also give an overview of IVM being utilized in drug development, offering a view into the intricate interaction between drugs/nanoparticles and tissues in vivo and allows for the evaluation of therapeutic intervention in a variety of tissues and organs. This interdisciplinary collaboration continues to drive the advancements of novel therapeutic strategies.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
Seminar of U.V. Spectroscopy by SAMIR PANDASAMIR PANDA
Spectroscopy is a branch of science dealing the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflect spectroscopy in the UV-VIS spectral region.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is an analytical method that can measure the amount of light received by the analyte.
1. THERMODYNAMICS - 2
By
C. D. Mungmode
Associate Professor
Department Of Physics
M. G. College, Armori
2. ENTROPY:
Heat flows from objects of high temperature to objects at Low temperature because this
process increases the Disorder of the system. Entropy is a measure of a system’s Disorder.
It can be defined as a thermodynamic property of a working substance which remains constant
during an Adiabatic Process.
According to the second law of thermodynamics the entropy of an isolated system never
decreases; such a system will spontaneously proceed towards thermodynamic equilibrium, the
configuration with maximum entropy.
The change in entropy (ΔS) of a system was originally defined for a thermodynamically
reversible process as,
Here, T is the absolute temperature of the system, and dQ is energy supplied (change in energy).
It has a unit of joule per kelvin (J K−1).
3. CHANGE IN ENTROPY:
Let ABCD and DCEF be the Carnot’s reversible cycles. Q1 amount of heat is absorbed in going
from A to B at temperature T1 and Q2 amount of heat is rejected at constant temperature T2.
Efficiency of Carnot’s heat engine is given by,
ᶯ = Q1 –Q2
Q1
= T1 –T2
T1
1 -
Q2
Q1
= 1 -
T2
T1
Q2
Q1
=
T2
T1
Q1
T1
=
Q2
T2
…………….(1)
Similarly for the Carnot's Cycle DCEF in which Q2 is heat absorbed at constant temperature T2
and Q3 is heat rejected at constant temperature T3 ,
Q2
T2
=
Q3
T3
…………….(2)
4. from equations (1) and (2),
Q1
T1
=
Q2
T2
=
Q3
T3
= …… constant
In general, if Q is heat absorbed or rejected at temperature T, then
Q
T
= constant
for small change in heat δ𝑄 at temperature T,
δ𝑆 =
𝜹𝑸
T
= constant
This constant ratio is called ‘change in entropy’ between the states represented by the two
adiabatics.
5. Physical Concept of Entropy:
change in entropy is given by ,
δ𝑆 =
𝜹𝑸
T
Hence, heat has the same dimension as the product of entropy and absolute temperature. The
gravitational potential energy of a body is proportional to the product of its mass and height above some
zero level, likewise we may take temperature analogous to height and entropy as analogous to mass or
inertia. Thus we may take entropy as thermal inertia .
Unit of entropy is Joule/K.
6. CHANGE IN ENTROPY IN REVERSIBLE CYCLE:
Consider a Carnot’s Reversible cycle ABCD.
i) Isothermal Expansion:
Let Q1 be the heat absorbed at constant temp. T1. The increase
in entropy of the working substance is given by,
𝑨
𝑩
𝒅𝑺 =
Q1
T1
ii) Adiabatic Expansion:
There is no change in entropy of the working substance,
because heat is neither allowed to enter nor leave the system, but
temp. of the system falls from T1 to T2
𝑩
𝑪
𝒅𝑺 = 0
7. • Iii) Isothermal Compression:
Substance rejects Q2 heat to the sink at temp T2. The entropy of the substance decreases.
𝑪
𝑫
𝒅𝑺 = -
Q2
T2
iv) Adiabatic Compression:
There is no change in entropy but temp changes from T2 to T1
𝑫
𝑨
𝒅𝑺 = 0
Thus the net gain in entropy of the working substance in the whole cycle is,
Q1
T1
-
Q2
T2
But for a reversible Carnot’s Cycle
Q1
T1
=
Q2
T2
Hence,
Q1
T1
-
Q2
T2
= 0
Thus in a cycle of reversible process, the entropy of the system remains unchanged or remains
constant
8. PRINCIPLE OF INCREASE OF ENTROPY:
Consider an engine performing irreversible cycle in which working substance absorbed heat
Q1 at temperature T1 from the source and rejects heat Q2 at temperature T2 to the sink.
The efficiency of this cycle is given by,
ᶯ’ = Q1 – Q2
Q1
= 1 -
Q2
Q1
But according to Carnot's theorem, this efficiency is less than the efficiency of reversible engine
working between same two temperatures given by,
ᶯ = 1 -
T2
T1
thus, ᶯ’ < ᶯ
1 -
Q2
Q1
< 1 -
T2
T1
Q2
Q1
>
T2
T1
9. Q2
T2
>
Q1
T1
Or
Q2
T2
-
Q1
T1
> 0
Hence over the whole cycle source loses an entropy
Q1
T1
and sink gains the entropy by an
amount
Q2
T2
. Thus in an irreversible cycle the entropy of the system always increases.
10. SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS:
PLANK’S STATEMENT:
It is impossible to construct an engine which, working in a complete cycle, will produce
no effect other than the raising of a weight and the cooling of a heat reservoir.
KELVIN-PLANK STATEMENT:
It is impossible to construct an engine which, operating in a cycle, has the sole effect of
extracting heat from a reservoir and performing an equivalent amount of work.
CLAUSIUS’ STATEMENT:
it is impossible for a self acting machine working in a cyclic process, unaided by
external agency, to transfer heat from a body at a lower temp to a body at a higher temp.
IN TERMS OF ENTROPY:
Every physical or chemical process in nature takes place in such a manner that the total
entropy increases.
Mathematical form of second law of thermodynamics is
dQ = T. dS
11. T – S DIAGRAM:
Thermodynamic changes in the state of a substance can be represented by plotting entropy
(S) along horizontal axis and temperature (T) along perpendicular axis. Such a diagram is called
temperature entropy (T-S) diagram.
Consider Carnot’s reversible cycle. On T-S diagram , isothermal curves are shown by two straight lines
AB and CD parallel to S - axis.
The adiabatic curves are shown by the straight lines BC and DA parallel to T - axis.
Fig. A P-V diagram of the Carnot Cycle. Fig. A T-S diagram of the Carnot Cycle.
A B
C
D
S2
12. S1 be the entropy of working substance in state A, S2 be the entropy in state B, Q1 be the heat absorbed
along AB at constant temp T1 and Q2 be the heat rejected at constant temperature T2 along CD.
The gain in entropy in isothermal expansion along AB is
S2 – S1 =
Q1
T1
…………….. (1)
There is no change in entropy during adiabatic expansion along BC.
The loss in entropy during isothermal compression along CD is given by,
S2 – S1 =
Q2
T2
………………(2)
There is no change in entropy during adiabatic compression along DA.
From equation (1) and (2)
Q1 = T1 (S2 – S1 )
and Q2 = T2 (S2 – S1 )
∴ Q2 – Q1 = (T1 – T2)(S2 – S1)
13. (Q2 – Q1) represents the external work done in the cycle and (T1 – T2)(S2 – S1) is the area of the
rectangle on the T-S diagram.
Efficiency of the Carnot’s engine using T-S diagram can be write as,
ᶯ = Q1 –Q2
Q1
=
(T1 – T2)(S2 – S1)
T1 (S2 – S1 )
=
(T1 – T2)
T1
ᶯ = 1 -
T2
T1
14. THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS:
The heat capacities of all solids tend to zero as the absolute zero of temperature is approached and
that the internal energies and entropies of all substances become equal there, approaching their
common value tending to zero.
OR
At absolute zero temperature, the entropy tends to zero and the molecules of a substance or a system
are in perfect order (i.e. well arranged).
ZERO POINT ENERGY:
According to kinetic theory at absolute temperature the energy of the system should be zero but
according to modern concept they possess some energy.
The energy of the molecules at absolute zero temperature is called Zero Point Energy.
15. HEAT DEATH OF UNIVERSE:
All the natural processes like conduction, convection, diffusion and so on are all irreversible. In these
processes the entropy of the system increases and tend to have maximum value by attaining a
uniform state of temperature, pressure, composition, etc.
Hence, at some distant future universe would attain a state of absolute uniformity.
In such a state all the physical, chemical and biological processes would stop and there would be no
change in the total energy of the universe.
Since there will be no temperature difference , it will not be possible to convert any amount of heat into
useful work.
This means the universe is heading towards the Heat Death.
16. MAXWELL’S THERMODYNAMICAL RELATIONS:
All the thermodynamic variables are related by four relations, known as Maxwell’s Thermodynamic
Relations.
According to First law of thermodynamics,
𝛿Q = dU + PdV
dU = 𝛿Q – PdV …………….. (1)
According to Second law of thermodynamics,
𝛿Q = T.dS
substituting the value of 𝛿Q in equation (1), we have
dU = T.dS – PdV ……………...(2)
Consider U, S and V to be function of two independent variables x and y (x and y can be any two
variables out of P, V, T and S)
U = U(x,y), S = S(x,y), V = V(x,y)
17. take the partial derivatives
and
substituting these values in equation (2), we get
18. comparing the coefficient of dx and dy, one gets
Differentiating above equations by y and x respectively
And ……………….. (4)
and V are exact differentials, therefore,
………………. (3)
19. Subtract eqn. (3) and (4) and one gets,
The above is called the general expression for Maxwell's thermodynamical relation.
Maxwell's first relation:
Allow x = S and y = V and one gets
Maxwell's second relation:
Allow x = T and y = V and one gets
20. Maxwell's third relation
Allow x = S and y = P and one gets
Maxwell's fourth relation
Allow x = T and y = P and one gets
Maxwell's fifth relation
Allow x = P and y = V
= 1
Maxwell's sixth relation
Allow x = T and y = S and one gets
= 1