Rational choice theory proposes that individuals make rational decisions based on weighing costs and benefits to maximize personal utility. It originated in the 18th century with Cesare Beccaria and was expanded by later theorists like Weber, Pareto, and Homans. The theory assumes individuals are rational actors who make optimal choices given available resources and constraints to fulfill preferences. It provides a framework for interpreting individual actions and their social outcomes from the actor's perspective. Critics argue it oversimplifies human decision-making.
The document provides background information on the rational choice theory. It discusses the key assumptions of rational choice theory, including that individuals are rational actors who make choices to maximize their own benefits based on their preferences, resources, and costs/benefits of different options. The document also outlines some of the main influences on rational choice theory, such as utilitarian economics, Weber's views on rationalization in modern society, and the work of Pareto. It notes rational choice theory has been applied in fields like sociology, criminology, and economics to explain social and individual behaviors.
Rational choice theory posits that people make rational decisions based on weighing costs and benefits to maximize their own utility. It assumes humans are goal-oriented and make choices by rationally calculating how different options fulfill their preferences. According to rational choice theory, social change occurs as the result of individuals making utility-maximizing choices. However, critics argue that people do not always make decisions through strict cost-benefit analysis and that rational choice theory cannot fully explain all social phenomena like altruism.
The document discusses the scope and method of economics. It defines economics as the science of administering scarce resources in human society. It explores the differences between theoretical, applied and welfare economics. It also discusses how economics aims to identify general patterns of uniformity in human behavior and use empirical testing to verify hypotheses and models. While there is significant agreement among economists, disagreements can arise from different social objectives, facts, or failures to follow logical rules. Ideologies are rationalizations of beliefs not based on scientific procedure and only convince those with similar motivations.
Understanding the concepts of culture, society and politicsMaryjoydailo
This document discusses key concepts related to culture, society, and politics. It covers:
- Aspects of culture including that culture is learned, symbolic, integrated, shared, and all-encompassing.
- Three sociological approaches to studying society: structural-functional, social-conflict, and symbolic-interaction. The structural-functional and social-conflict approaches have a macro-level orientation while symbolic-interaction has a micro-level orientation.
- Definitions of politics including that politics involves the activity of making, preserving, and amending the general rules that people live by, which inevitably leads to conflict and cooperation.
Outlines on environmental philosophy part 6Steven Ghezzo
A study on the environmental issue from historical, anthropological, social, psychological, philosophical, economic, political and juridical perspectives
1A society, according to Utilitarianism, is just to the extent tha.pdfanyacarpets
1>>A society, according to Utilitarianism, is just to the extent that its laws and institutions are
such as to promote the greatest overall or average happiness of its members.
How do we determine the aggregate, or overall, happiness of the members of a society? This
would seem to present a real problem. For happiness is not, like temperature or weight, directly
measurable by any means that we have available. So utilitarians must approach the matter
indirectly. They will have to rely on indirect measures, in other words. What would these be, and
how can they be identified?
The traditional idea at this point is to rely upon (a) a theory of the human good (i.e., of what is
good for human beings, of what is required for them to flourish) and (b) an account of the social
conditions and forms of organization essential to the realization of that good.
People, of course, do not agree on what kind of life would be the most desirable. Intellectuals,
artists, ministers, politicians, corporate bureaucrats, financiers, soldiers, athletes, salespersons,
workers: all these different types of people, and more besides, will certainly not agree completely
on what is a happy, satisfying, or desirable life. Very likely they will disagree on some quite
important points.
All is not lost, however. For there may yet be substantial agreement--enough, anyway, for the
purposes of a theory of justice --about the general conditions requisite to human flourishing in all
these otherwise disparate kinds of life. First of all there are at minimum certain basic needs that
must be satisfied in any desirable kind of life. Basic needs, says James Sterba, are those needs
\"that must be satisfied in order not to seriously endanger a person\'s mental or physical well-
being.\"
Basic needs, if not satisfied, lead to lacks and deficiencies with respect to a standard of mental
and physical well-being. A person\'s needs for food, shelter, medical care, protection,
companionship, and self-development are, at least in part, needs of this sort. [Sterba,
Contemporary Social and Political Philosophy (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1995).
A basic-needs minimum, then, is the minimum wherewithal required for a person to meet his or
her basic needs. Such needs are universal. People will be alike in having such needs, however
much they diverge in regard to the other needs, desires, or ends that they may have.
We may develop this common ground further by resorting to some of Aristotle\'s ideas on this
question of the nature of a happy and satisfying life. Aristotle holds that humans are rational
beings and that a human life is essentially rational activity, by which he means that human
beings live their lives by making choices on the basis of reasons and then acting on those
choices. All reasoning about what to do proceeds from premises relating to the agent\'s beliefs
and desires. Desire is the motive for action and the practical syllogism (Aristotle\'s label for the
reasoning by which .
This document provides information on various topics in sociology. It begins with a list of student names and numbers. It then discusses sociology as the youngest social science and defines it using different sociologists' perspectives. It outlines the subject matter, social perspectives, and major theoretical perspectives in sociology. It also discusses applied and theoretical sociology, as well as fields of sociology such as community sociology.
1) Community development theories provide frameworks to understand community behavior and guide practice. Seven key theories are discussed.
2) Social capital theory examines the importance of relationships and trust for collective action. Functionalism views social structures like organizations as having important roles.
3) Conflict theory analyzes power dynamics and access to resources. Symbolic interactionism explores how shared meanings are socially constructed.
The document provides background information on the rational choice theory. It discusses the key assumptions of rational choice theory, including that individuals are rational actors who make choices to maximize their own benefits based on their preferences, resources, and costs/benefits of different options. The document also outlines some of the main influences on rational choice theory, such as utilitarian economics, Weber's views on rationalization in modern society, and the work of Pareto. It notes rational choice theory has been applied in fields like sociology, criminology, and economics to explain social and individual behaviors.
Rational choice theory posits that people make rational decisions based on weighing costs and benefits to maximize their own utility. It assumes humans are goal-oriented and make choices by rationally calculating how different options fulfill their preferences. According to rational choice theory, social change occurs as the result of individuals making utility-maximizing choices. However, critics argue that people do not always make decisions through strict cost-benefit analysis and that rational choice theory cannot fully explain all social phenomena like altruism.
The document discusses the scope and method of economics. It defines economics as the science of administering scarce resources in human society. It explores the differences between theoretical, applied and welfare economics. It also discusses how economics aims to identify general patterns of uniformity in human behavior and use empirical testing to verify hypotheses and models. While there is significant agreement among economists, disagreements can arise from different social objectives, facts, or failures to follow logical rules. Ideologies are rationalizations of beliefs not based on scientific procedure and only convince those with similar motivations.
Understanding the concepts of culture, society and politicsMaryjoydailo
This document discusses key concepts related to culture, society, and politics. It covers:
- Aspects of culture including that culture is learned, symbolic, integrated, shared, and all-encompassing.
- Three sociological approaches to studying society: structural-functional, social-conflict, and symbolic-interaction. The structural-functional and social-conflict approaches have a macro-level orientation while symbolic-interaction has a micro-level orientation.
- Definitions of politics including that politics involves the activity of making, preserving, and amending the general rules that people live by, which inevitably leads to conflict and cooperation.
Outlines on environmental philosophy part 6Steven Ghezzo
A study on the environmental issue from historical, anthropological, social, psychological, philosophical, economic, political and juridical perspectives
1A society, according to Utilitarianism, is just to the extent tha.pdfanyacarpets
1>>A society, according to Utilitarianism, is just to the extent that its laws and institutions are
such as to promote the greatest overall or average happiness of its members.
How do we determine the aggregate, or overall, happiness of the members of a society? This
would seem to present a real problem. For happiness is not, like temperature or weight, directly
measurable by any means that we have available. So utilitarians must approach the matter
indirectly. They will have to rely on indirect measures, in other words. What would these be, and
how can they be identified?
The traditional idea at this point is to rely upon (a) a theory of the human good (i.e., of what is
good for human beings, of what is required for them to flourish) and (b) an account of the social
conditions and forms of organization essential to the realization of that good.
People, of course, do not agree on what kind of life would be the most desirable. Intellectuals,
artists, ministers, politicians, corporate bureaucrats, financiers, soldiers, athletes, salespersons,
workers: all these different types of people, and more besides, will certainly not agree completely
on what is a happy, satisfying, or desirable life. Very likely they will disagree on some quite
important points.
All is not lost, however. For there may yet be substantial agreement--enough, anyway, for the
purposes of a theory of justice --about the general conditions requisite to human flourishing in all
these otherwise disparate kinds of life. First of all there are at minimum certain basic needs that
must be satisfied in any desirable kind of life. Basic needs, says James Sterba, are those needs
\"that must be satisfied in order not to seriously endanger a person\'s mental or physical well-
being.\"
Basic needs, if not satisfied, lead to lacks and deficiencies with respect to a standard of mental
and physical well-being. A person\'s needs for food, shelter, medical care, protection,
companionship, and self-development are, at least in part, needs of this sort. [Sterba,
Contemporary Social and Political Philosophy (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1995).
A basic-needs minimum, then, is the minimum wherewithal required for a person to meet his or
her basic needs. Such needs are universal. People will be alike in having such needs, however
much they diverge in regard to the other needs, desires, or ends that they may have.
We may develop this common ground further by resorting to some of Aristotle\'s ideas on this
question of the nature of a happy and satisfying life. Aristotle holds that humans are rational
beings and that a human life is essentially rational activity, by which he means that human
beings live their lives by making choices on the basis of reasons and then acting on those
choices. All reasoning about what to do proceeds from premises relating to the agent\'s beliefs
and desires. Desire is the motive for action and the practical syllogism (Aristotle\'s label for the
reasoning by which .
This document provides information on various topics in sociology. It begins with a list of student names and numbers. It then discusses sociology as the youngest social science and defines it using different sociologists' perspectives. It outlines the subject matter, social perspectives, and major theoretical perspectives in sociology. It also discusses applied and theoretical sociology, as well as fields of sociology such as community sociology.
1) Community development theories provide frameworks to understand community behavior and guide practice. Seven key theories are discussed.
2) Social capital theory examines the importance of relationships and trust for collective action. Functionalism views social structures like organizations as having important roles.
3) Conflict theory analyzes power dynamics and access to resources. Symbolic interactionism explores how shared meanings are socially constructed.
This document provides information about sociology including definitions of sociology from different sociologists, the subject matter and perspectives of sociology, major sociological perspectives including functionalism, conflict theory and symbolic interactionism, types of sociology such as applied and theoretical sociology, fields of sociology, scope of sociology, and significance of sociology. It discusses concepts such as the youngest of social sciences, observation, experimentation, analysis, conclusion, social phenomena, human interactions, institutions, collective behavior, relationships, actions, micro and macro levels of analysis, consensus, inequality, symbols, and more.
Action Research For As Mindful Of Social JusticeLisa Garcia
This document discusses the relationship between action research and social justice. It argues that action research and aims for social justice can be coherent in several ways. Both are concerned with action and view knowledge as provisional and revisable based on context. Key features of action research like collaboration, addressing multiple perspectives, and commitment to change can align with conceptions of social justice that emphasize redistribution, recognition of diverse groups, and ongoing efforts towards fairness. However, putting these ideals into practice through action research can be challenging, as it requires negotiating differences and agreeing on joint actions.
Social science lecture 1(part-2) ppt summer 2011Sajib
Sociology is the systematic study of human society and social behavior. It examines how societies are structured and how social relationships influence individual behavior. There are three main theoretical perspectives in sociology: functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism. Functionalism views society as a system whose parts work together to promote stability. Conflict theory emphasizes social change and power struggles between groups. Symbolic interactionism focuses on how people interact and influence each other on a small scale through symbols and their own interpretations. Sociologists use multiple perspectives to gain a well-rounded understanding of social issues and human behavior.
This document discusses allocation and provisioning in economics. It begins by introducing the concepts of scarcity and wants, and how economics deals with allocating scarce resources to satisfy unlimited wants. It then discusses several questions around provisioning, including the nature of wants, social institutions, technology, and their role in the economic system. The document outlines three approaches to addressing the allocation problem: increasing output, altering the mix of goods produced, and altering wants/preferences. It introduces concepts like ceteris paribus, opportunity cost, and property rights and their role in allocation mechanisms.
Sociology is the study of human behavior and social relationships, while economics is the study of how humans make decisions in the face of scarcity. The document discusses how sociology and economics are closely related and mutually helpful fields. It explores how sociologists can provide social context for interpreting economic changes, while economists can explain social changes through economic forces. Key characteristics of economic sociology are outlined, such as analyzing economic phenomena through a sociological lens. The major modern economic systems of capitalism and socialism are also defined.
Rational choice theory proposes that people make rational decisions based on weighing costs and benefits to maximize personal utility. It is used to explain social change as resulting from individuals making utility-maximizing choices. Critics argue people do not always make decisions through strict cost-benefit analysis. The theory assumes humans are goal-oriented and make rational calculations to optimize pleasure or profit when choosing between alternatives. However, it cannot fully explain phenomena like altruism that are not self-interested.
This document provides an introduction to economics. It defines economics and outlines its two main approaches: microeconomics which focuses on individual units, and macroeconomics which looks at the overall economy. It also describes the normative approach which looks at "what ought to be" and involves value judgments, versus the positive approach which studies things objectively without imposing values. The document then discusses key concepts in economics like wages, employment, and the five main divisions of economics: consumption, distribution, exchange, production, and public finance. It concludes by outlining several other social sciences and fields related to economics.
Smelser Neil J., Swedberg Richard. - The Sociological Perspective on the Econ...zddglygt
This document provides an overview of economic sociology by comparing it to mainstream economics. Some key differences include:
- Economic sociology views the economy as embedded within and influenced by society, while mainstream economics views the market and economy as the primary focus with society as external.
- Economic sociology considers multiple types of economic actions that are influenced by social and cultural factors, while mainstream economics assumes rational economic action aimed solely at profit/utility maximization.
- Constraints on economic action in sociology include social structures, norms, and meanings, while constraints in economics are tastes and resource scarcity.
- The goal of economic sociology is description and explanation of diverse economic phenomena, while the goal of economics
1
3
Chapter 7 SummaryCHAPTER SUMMARY
Contemporary Integrative Theories
This chapter describes theoretical efforts to integrate macro-level theories that deal with the structures and institutions of society with micro-level theories of everyday life. These integrative theories aim to overcome the limitations of either approach by balancing our understanding that individuals are free to interpret, influence, and act with our understanding of organizational and institutional constraints, power, and social reproduction. Richard Emerson’s exchange theory, Anthony Giddens’s structuration theory, and Pierre Bourdieu’s theory of practice each take distinctive approaches to this central problem in social theory.
A More Integrated Exchange Theory
Building on the work of George Homans, Richard Emerson (1925-1983) asserted that power was central to exchange, that actors are not entirely rational, and that social relations and networks could be used to explain both micro- and macro-level phenomena. Emerson’s exchange theory focuses on the rewards and costs of social interaction and takes social structure as a variable dependent on exchange. The theory assumes that people act rationally within the context of situations, thereby allowing the situations to occur. It also assumes that as people become satiated with the rewards they obtain from a situation, those situations will be of declining importance to them. Last, it assumes that benefits obtained depend on the benefits of exchange.
According to Emerson, social structure is produced and reproduced through exchange mechanisms. The exchange network is a web of social relationships that involves a number of individuals or groups. All individuals and groups have opportunities to exchange with others. These relationships interrelate with one another to form network structure. Each exchange relationship is embedded in a larger exchange network.
In exchange theory, power is defined as the potential cost that one actor can induce another to accept. Dependency is the potential cost that an actor is willing to accept within an exchange relationship. Mutual dependencies condition the nature of an interaction. When there is an imbalance of power and dependency between two actors, the one with more power and less dependence will have an advantage that can be used to collect rewards or distribute punishments. Exchange theorists argue that the relative power of an actor is determined by the position of an actor in an exchange network. The amount of dependence of the entire structure on the position will determine its power. This perspective can be used to examine both the social behavior of individuals and social structure. It can also be used to examine how changes in power-dependency at the micro-level affect macro-level phenomena and vice-versa.
Structuration Theory
Structuration theory focuses on the mutual constitution of structure and agency. Anthony Giddens (1938- ) argues that structure an.
A study of culture, belief and social structureMarcel Duma
This document provides an introduction to the author's framework for analyzing culture, belief and social structure using "idea maps". The author argues that idea maps allow one to compress complex social phenomena into a visual representation of related ideas. Idea maps show the relationships between different concepts, groups, institutions, etc. through identifying the sets of ideas associated with each. The author provides several examples of idea maps analyzing historical groups in China and aspects of the project of interdisciplinary social science. The goal of idea maps is to help communicate and shed light on complex social issues by representing relationships between ideas.
Chapter 4 Administration Responsibility The Key to Administrativ.docxketurahhazelhurst
Chapter 4: Administration Responsibility: The Key to Administrative Ethics In order to access the following resource, click the links below. Watch the following segments from the full video listed below: Utilitarian Theory (segment 10 of 15) and Duty Theory (Segment 11 of 15). These video segments provide more information on two important theories in ethics. Films Media Group (Producer). (2004). Ethics: What is right [Video file]. Retrieved from https://libraryresources.columbiasouthern.edu/login?auth=CAS&url=https://fod.infobase.com/PortalPl aylists.aspx?wID=273866&xtid=32706 The transcript for this video can be found by clicking on “Transcript” in the gray bar to the right of the video in the Films on Demand database. Unit Lesson Philosophical Theories: Related to Ethical Decision-Making Many theorists have concluded that several decision-making models exist that focus on consistent norms and have derived from society and individual impressions. The textbook cites several sources that are prominent in this field, and lists some of the well-known founders of these theories. Participants that develop topics of public policy, such as social equity, education, conflict resolution, or human rights, may base their decisionmaking on the beliefs related to certain philosophies. Utilitarianism: Approach Based on Consequences Based on consequences, an action may be right or wrong. Jeremy Bentham and John Steward Mills derived this theory that was completely based on reason. The authors did not want their theory based on religion or a particular societal level of norms. More so, Utilitarianism wanted everyone to have access to a thinking mind and is based off an idea of utility or usefulness. An abbreviated summary of Bentham and Mills theory can be summarized as “the greatest good, for the greatest number or population.” We can assume that “good” means happiness or pleasure for most people. Another concept closely related to this outcome is efficacy, which implies the “least desired input for greatest desired output.” Business and government usually take this strategy for different reasons – mainly associated with resources. If one thinks about successful business and government practices, the decision-making effort outcomes generally result in products and services that work best, cost least, and last the longest. The consumer mindset also uses this simple and natural buying process for decision-making. The successful business leader uses this variable for short and long-term investment decisions, and the public manager focuses on successful public services, which utilizes public funding in a prudent and wise fashion. Another public example is the government buying process where services and products are purchased though a competitive vetting process where needs, values, and timely delivery are critical components of the purchasing decision model. Efficacy also applies to students who UNIT II STUDY GUIDE Established Philosophies Affecting Public Eth ...
This document provides an overview of sociology from the perspective of different sociological theories. It discusses how sociology studies human behavior in a social context and how society shapes individuals. It then summarizes three major sociological perspectives: structural functionalism, which views society as a system of interconnected parts that promote social stability; conflict theory, which sees society as defined by power struggles and inequality that fuel social change; and symbolic interactionism, which focuses on subjective social interactions and how individuals interpret and adjust to each other's actions. It provides examples of key thinkers for each perspective, like Durkheim for functionalism and Marx for conflict theory.
Sociological Institutionalism argues that institutions shape actor preferences and available choices rather than actors rationally designing institutions. It focuses on how shared understandings, norms, and routines develop through fields and isomorphic processes like mimicry. While providing explanations for stability, it has faced criticism around allowing for innovation and change given its emphasis on taken-for-granted practices and copying between actors. The theory is argued to be most applicable in situations where symbolic dimensions dominate, technical dimensions are immature, or long time frames are considered.
11.capability approach and multidimensional poverty analysisAlexander Decker
This document discusses the capability approach and its use in multidimensional poverty analysis. It begins with an abstract that introduces the capability approach and how it can be used to evaluate well-being, inequality, and poverty. The next sections provide more detail on key aspects of the capability approach, including its focus on what people are effectively able to do and be, the distinction between means and ends, and how capabilities and functionings relate to achieved outcomes. It then discusses how the capability approach provides a framework for measuring poverty in a multidimensional way by looking at multiple dimensions of well-being beyond just income.
Capability approach and multidimensional poverty analysisAlexander Decker
This document discusses the capability approach and its use in multidimensional poverty analysis. It begins with an abstract that introduces the capability approach and how it can be used to evaluate well-being, inequality, and poverty. The document then provides details on:
1) The key concepts in the capability approach including means, ends, functionings, and capabilities. It distinguishes between capabilities (opportunities) and achieved functionings (outcomes).
2) How the capability approach frames multidimensional poverty, looking at a person's attainment across multiple dimensions like health, education, standard of living.
3) The document provides an example to illustrate the differences between capabilities, achieved functionings, well-being
This document discusses social choice and collective decision making. It begins by defining social choices as those made by governments that influence many people, such as economic and social policy decisions. It then discusses two approaches to understanding social choices - the public interest approach views individuals as subordinate to social organizations, while the self-interest approach sees individuals as acting to maximize their own utility. The document goes on to examine criteria for acceptable social choice rules, including rationality, independence, Pareto principles, unrestricted domain, and non-dictatorship. It analyzes majority voting rules and concludes they can produce intransitive outcomes, violating Arrow's criteria for social choice. Relaxing some assumptions, like restricting preferences to a single-peak pattern,
1. The document discusses how contemporary economic structures and employment conditions stem from historical figures like Max Weber, Immanuel Kant, and Friedrich Hayek and their theories of capitalism, work ethic, and neoliberalism. It analyzes how these have influenced concepts like time poverty and precarious employment.
2. It then examines how health promotion frameworks like the Ottawa Charter emphasize upstream social and economic determinants of health in contrast to approaches focused solely on individual behaviors and disease treatment. The capabilities approach and principles of advocacy, empowerment and coordination across sectors are discussed.
3. Examples are given of how neoliberal policies have manifested problems like increased casual and insecure work in New Zealand, impacting workers
This document summarizes the beginnings and basic structures of imperialism. It describes the age of exploration leading Europeans to race for overseas colonies for economic gain through trade. This "old imperialism" from the 1500s-1700s saw England, France, Holland, Portugal, and Spain fighting over colonies. A period of interlude followed before the "new imperialism" beginning in 1875, spurred by industrial needs of new markets and raw materials. This new imperialism was largely economic, seeking control over areas for profits rather than direct colonial rule. The motivations of imperialism included economic, political, military, social, religious justifications that were supported by ideas of social Darwinism and racism.
This document discusses several key aspects of community planning:
1) A needs assessment identifies gaps between current conditions and desired outcomes through surveys to prioritize actions and document needs for funding. A resources assessment identifies available community assets and support needs.
2) Participatory action planning engages community members in goal-setting and problem-solving through open communication and community-driven initiatives.
3) Evaluation design facilitates monitoring progress and outcomes to review effectiveness and identify areas for improvement.
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This document provides information about sociology including definitions of sociology from different sociologists, the subject matter and perspectives of sociology, major sociological perspectives including functionalism, conflict theory and symbolic interactionism, types of sociology such as applied and theoretical sociology, fields of sociology, scope of sociology, and significance of sociology. It discusses concepts such as the youngest of social sciences, observation, experimentation, analysis, conclusion, social phenomena, human interactions, institutions, collective behavior, relationships, actions, micro and macro levels of analysis, consensus, inequality, symbols, and more.
Action Research For As Mindful Of Social JusticeLisa Garcia
This document discusses the relationship between action research and social justice. It argues that action research and aims for social justice can be coherent in several ways. Both are concerned with action and view knowledge as provisional and revisable based on context. Key features of action research like collaboration, addressing multiple perspectives, and commitment to change can align with conceptions of social justice that emphasize redistribution, recognition of diverse groups, and ongoing efforts towards fairness. However, putting these ideals into practice through action research can be challenging, as it requires negotiating differences and agreeing on joint actions.
Social science lecture 1(part-2) ppt summer 2011Sajib
Sociology is the systematic study of human society and social behavior. It examines how societies are structured and how social relationships influence individual behavior. There are three main theoretical perspectives in sociology: functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism. Functionalism views society as a system whose parts work together to promote stability. Conflict theory emphasizes social change and power struggles between groups. Symbolic interactionism focuses on how people interact and influence each other on a small scale through symbols and their own interpretations. Sociologists use multiple perspectives to gain a well-rounded understanding of social issues and human behavior.
This document discusses allocation and provisioning in economics. It begins by introducing the concepts of scarcity and wants, and how economics deals with allocating scarce resources to satisfy unlimited wants. It then discusses several questions around provisioning, including the nature of wants, social institutions, technology, and their role in the economic system. The document outlines three approaches to addressing the allocation problem: increasing output, altering the mix of goods produced, and altering wants/preferences. It introduces concepts like ceteris paribus, opportunity cost, and property rights and their role in allocation mechanisms.
Sociology is the study of human behavior and social relationships, while economics is the study of how humans make decisions in the face of scarcity. The document discusses how sociology and economics are closely related and mutually helpful fields. It explores how sociologists can provide social context for interpreting economic changes, while economists can explain social changes through economic forces. Key characteristics of economic sociology are outlined, such as analyzing economic phenomena through a sociological lens. The major modern economic systems of capitalism and socialism are also defined.
Rational choice theory proposes that people make rational decisions based on weighing costs and benefits to maximize personal utility. It is used to explain social change as resulting from individuals making utility-maximizing choices. Critics argue people do not always make decisions through strict cost-benefit analysis. The theory assumes humans are goal-oriented and make rational calculations to optimize pleasure or profit when choosing between alternatives. However, it cannot fully explain phenomena like altruism that are not self-interested.
This document provides an introduction to economics. It defines economics and outlines its two main approaches: microeconomics which focuses on individual units, and macroeconomics which looks at the overall economy. It also describes the normative approach which looks at "what ought to be" and involves value judgments, versus the positive approach which studies things objectively without imposing values. The document then discusses key concepts in economics like wages, employment, and the five main divisions of economics: consumption, distribution, exchange, production, and public finance. It concludes by outlining several other social sciences and fields related to economics.
Smelser Neil J., Swedberg Richard. - The Sociological Perspective on the Econ...zddglygt
This document provides an overview of economic sociology by comparing it to mainstream economics. Some key differences include:
- Economic sociology views the economy as embedded within and influenced by society, while mainstream economics views the market and economy as the primary focus with society as external.
- Economic sociology considers multiple types of economic actions that are influenced by social and cultural factors, while mainstream economics assumes rational economic action aimed solely at profit/utility maximization.
- Constraints on economic action in sociology include social structures, norms, and meanings, while constraints in economics are tastes and resource scarcity.
- The goal of economic sociology is description and explanation of diverse economic phenomena, while the goal of economics
1
3
Chapter 7 SummaryCHAPTER SUMMARY
Contemporary Integrative Theories
This chapter describes theoretical efforts to integrate macro-level theories that deal with the structures and institutions of society with micro-level theories of everyday life. These integrative theories aim to overcome the limitations of either approach by balancing our understanding that individuals are free to interpret, influence, and act with our understanding of organizational and institutional constraints, power, and social reproduction. Richard Emerson’s exchange theory, Anthony Giddens’s structuration theory, and Pierre Bourdieu’s theory of practice each take distinctive approaches to this central problem in social theory.
A More Integrated Exchange Theory
Building on the work of George Homans, Richard Emerson (1925-1983) asserted that power was central to exchange, that actors are not entirely rational, and that social relations and networks could be used to explain both micro- and macro-level phenomena. Emerson’s exchange theory focuses on the rewards and costs of social interaction and takes social structure as a variable dependent on exchange. The theory assumes that people act rationally within the context of situations, thereby allowing the situations to occur. It also assumes that as people become satiated with the rewards they obtain from a situation, those situations will be of declining importance to them. Last, it assumes that benefits obtained depend on the benefits of exchange.
According to Emerson, social structure is produced and reproduced through exchange mechanisms. The exchange network is a web of social relationships that involves a number of individuals or groups. All individuals and groups have opportunities to exchange with others. These relationships interrelate with one another to form network structure. Each exchange relationship is embedded in a larger exchange network.
In exchange theory, power is defined as the potential cost that one actor can induce another to accept. Dependency is the potential cost that an actor is willing to accept within an exchange relationship. Mutual dependencies condition the nature of an interaction. When there is an imbalance of power and dependency between two actors, the one with more power and less dependence will have an advantage that can be used to collect rewards or distribute punishments. Exchange theorists argue that the relative power of an actor is determined by the position of an actor in an exchange network. The amount of dependence of the entire structure on the position will determine its power. This perspective can be used to examine both the social behavior of individuals and social structure. It can also be used to examine how changes in power-dependency at the micro-level affect macro-level phenomena and vice-versa.
Structuration Theory
Structuration theory focuses on the mutual constitution of structure and agency. Anthony Giddens (1938- ) argues that structure an.
A study of culture, belief and social structureMarcel Duma
This document provides an introduction to the author's framework for analyzing culture, belief and social structure using "idea maps". The author argues that idea maps allow one to compress complex social phenomena into a visual representation of related ideas. Idea maps show the relationships between different concepts, groups, institutions, etc. through identifying the sets of ideas associated with each. The author provides several examples of idea maps analyzing historical groups in China and aspects of the project of interdisciplinary social science. The goal of idea maps is to help communicate and shed light on complex social issues by representing relationships between ideas.
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Chapter 4: Administration Responsibility: The Key to Administrative Ethics In order to access the following resource, click the links below. Watch the following segments from the full video listed below: Utilitarian Theory (segment 10 of 15) and Duty Theory (Segment 11 of 15). These video segments provide more information on two important theories in ethics. Films Media Group (Producer). (2004). Ethics: What is right [Video file]. Retrieved from https://libraryresources.columbiasouthern.edu/login?auth=CAS&url=https://fod.infobase.com/PortalPl aylists.aspx?wID=273866&xtid=32706 The transcript for this video can be found by clicking on “Transcript” in the gray bar to the right of the video in the Films on Demand database. Unit Lesson Philosophical Theories: Related to Ethical Decision-Making Many theorists have concluded that several decision-making models exist that focus on consistent norms and have derived from society and individual impressions. The textbook cites several sources that are prominent in this field, and lists some of the well-known founders of these theories. Participants that develop topics of public policy, such as social equity, education, conflict resolution, or human rights, may base their decisionmaking on the beliefs related to certain philosophies. Utilitarianism: Approach Based on Consequences Based on consequences, an action may be right or wrong. Jeremy Bentham and John Steward Mills derived this theory that was completely based on reason. The authors did not want their theory based on religion or a particular societal level of norms. More so, Utilitarianism wanted everyone to have access to a thinking mind and is based off an idea of utility or usefulness. An abbreviated summary of Bentham and Mills theory can be summarized as “the greatest good, for the greatest number or population.” We can assume that “good” means happiness or pleasure for most people. Another concept closely related to this outcome is efficacy, which implies the “least desired input for greatest desired output.” Business and government usually take this strategy for different reasons – mainly associated with resources. If one thinks about successful business and government practices, the decision-making effort outcomes generally result in products and services that work best, cost least, and last the longest. The consumer mindset also uses this simple and natural buying process for decision-making. The successful business leader uses this variable for short and long-term investment decisions, and the public manager focuses on successful public services, which utilizes public funding in a prudent and wise fashion. Another public example is the government buying process where services and products are purchased though a competitive vetting process where needs, values, and timely delivery are critical components of the purchasing decision model. Efficacy also applies to students who UNIT II STUDY GUIDE Established Philosophies Affecting Public Eth ...
This document provides an overview of sociology from the perspective of different sociological theories. It discusses how sociology studies human behavior in a social context and how society shapes individuals. It then summarizes three major sociological perspectives: structural functionalism, which views society as a system of interconnected parts that promote social stability; conflict theory, which sees society as defined by power struggles and inequality that fuel social change; and symbolic interactionism, which focuses on subjective social interactions and how individuals interpret and adjust to each other's actions. It provides examples of key thinkers for each perspective, like Durkheim for functionalism and Marx for conflict theory.
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This document discusses the capability approach and its use in multidimensional poverty analysis. It begins with an abstract that introduces the capability approach and how it can be used to evaluate well-being, inequality, and poverty. The next sections provide more detail on key aspects of the capability approach, including its focus on what people are effectively able to do and be, the distinction between means and ends, and how capabilities and functionings relate to achieved outcomes. It then discusses how the capability approach provides a framework for measuring poverty in a multidimensional way by looking at multiple dimensions of well-being beyond just income.
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2. Jens
Martensson
What is The Rational
Choice Theory?
Rational choice theory is the view that people
behave as they do because they believe that
performing their chosen actions has more
benefits than costs. That is, people make
rational choices based on their goals, and
those choices govern their behavior. Some
sociologists use rational choice theory to
explain social change. According to them,
social change occurs because individuals
have made rational choices. For example,
suppose many people begin to conserve
more energy, lowering thermostats and
driving less. An explanation for this social
change is that individual people have
decided that conserving energy will help
them achieve their goals (for example, save
money and live more healthfully) and cause
little inconvenience. Critics argue people do
3. Martensson
Cesare
Beccaria
Historical Context of Rational
Choice Theory
Rational choice theory and its assumptions
about human behavior have been integrated
into numerous criminological theories and
criminal justice interventions. Rational
choice theory originated during the late 18th
century with the work of Cesare Beccaria.
Since then, the theory has been expanded
upon and extended to include other
perspectives, such as deterrence,
situational crime prevention, and routine
activity theory. The rational choice
perspective has been applied to a wide
range of crimes, including robbery, drug use,
vandalism, and white-collar crime. In
addition, neuropsychological literature
shows that there are neurobiological
mechanisms involved in our “ratioJenenas
l
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There are many different influences on RCT – utilitarian economics, Weber, Pareto,
and recent North American and European theorists.
A. Weber. As soon as rationality is mentioned in sociology, Weber’s
approach comes to mind. For Weber, rationality was a driving social
force in society, especially in modern society. Weber used the concept
of rationality in several different senses but in all of these “its principal
meaning … centers on the calculability, intellectualization, and
impersonal logic of goal-directed action. The instrumental approach to
action takes values as given and focusses instead on the efficient
choice of means to reach such goals” (Holton, 1996, p. 43). In such
action, a primary focus is on conscious action by the individual social
actor, considering others and attempting to achieve his or her own goals
in a considered and systematic manner. Weber regarded this as
characteristic of modern society, and tended to regard rationality as an
overpowering social force that increasingly affects all aspects of society.
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RCT can be regarded as one way of working out an explanation of the
social world in a Weberian manner. Weber argued that sociologists
should develop an interpretive understanding of social action in order to
explain “its course and effects” (Abel, p. 223). For Weber, action is
social in that it takes account of the “behavior of others and is thereby
oriented in its course” (Abell, p. 223). While most sociologists working
in the Weberian tradition adopt a more complex view of meaning and
interpretation and how social actors interact, RCT provides one possible
way of explaining the orientation and conscious consideration of the
actor in taking any social action. RCT provides an interpretation for
individual action, it shows what the effects of this are, and it certainly is
focussed on goals and orientation – so it satisfies Weber’s conditions for
social explanation. It can lead to an interpretive understanding of
social action, a causal explanation of its course and effects, can be
expanded to include social interaction and interdependence among
social actors (Abell, p. 230).
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B. Utilitarian Economics. Much economic theory developed in the nineteenth
and twentieth century foreshadows RCT. In fact, it may be that sociologists,
impressed with the overall power and rigour of such economic models,
developed RCT as a sociological counterpart to utilitarian economic models.
In general, such models are based on the assumption that economic actors
are “rational and as seeking to maximize their utilities or benefits” (Turner,
1998, p. 303). These economic models usually begin with an individual who
has a set of preferences (for particular goods and services, for income, for
leisure) but who does not have unlimited resources and faces constraints in
the form of limited land (agriculture), time, income, and a set of prices that
they cannot individually influence. Presented with various options concerning
how to meet or satisfy his or her needs or desires, the individual economic
actor must make decisions about how to best achieve his or her preferences,
given the set of constraints faced and choices available. Models explaining
how individuals decide to purchase certain commodities or supply labour
using this approach have proven to be powerful economic models – they can
help explain effects of taxes, changes in consumer purchasing patterns,
labour force activity, and business operations.
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C. Pareto. Vilfredo Pareto (1848-1923) was of Italian-French ancestry who became a
professor of economics in Switzerland in 1893, later returning to Italy. Pareto had many
concerns but he is known for distinguishing the maximum utility of the community as a
whole from the maximum utility of members of the community (as an aggregate of
individuals). Actions which might be regarded as positive for the nation, such as winning
a war, pursuing nationalist or other public policies, might be associated with sacrifice or
harm to some individuals. Pareto was concerned to preserve individual
utilities and argued that analysts should not compare the utility of such an action for
different individuals, since individual utilities are noncomparable. As a result, he argued
that public policy should be directed toward an optimum that is now referred to as a
Pareto optimum – an optimum whereby no one can gain greater benefits without others
losing some benefits. For example, in a social situation it may be possible to make both
persons better off through free exchange – presumably the exchange improves the
situation of each, otherwise why would they have entered into the exchange. In other
situations, it may be possible to improve the situation of one party without hurting the
other. A Pareto optimum is reached when there are no further possible improvements to
the situation of one without harming the other party. While this may seem a reasonable
approach, one problem is that there may be several Pareto optima, where each is
noncomparable with the other in terms of overall societal benefit. However, Pareto’s
method is sometimes worthwhile and shows that a methodologically individualist
approach can address certain issues of social action. (Waters, pp. 61-3).
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D. Recent Contributors. The names most associated with RCT are George
Homans and Peter Blau, who examine social exchange and the benefits and
costs of alternative courses of action (Adams and Sydie, pp. 197-200). Their
concerns parallel economic issues, but focus on social rather than economic
exchange, with social behaviour as an exchange of activity (Ritzer, p. 405).
Some examples from the sociologist James Coleman, another proponent of
RCT, are provided later.
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Basic Principles of Rational Choice Theory
► Individuals are rational.
–They can think in a logical way
► Individuals have interests.
–Different people have different interests.
–The interests of a person define her utilities.
► Individuals make choices.
–The choices people make influence their utilities.
► Individuals make choices in a rational way to increase their utilities.
–A person does not have full control over the results of her choices
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ASSUMPTIONS OF THE RATIONAL CHOICE
THEORY
Adams and Sydie (p. 190) explain Coleman’s RCT as aimed at
explaining individual action that has a purpose, or purposive action, and
the reasons for the action. That is, individuals as social actors engage
in social action for some purpose, actors are rational (they use reason
in a conscious manner), and actors are responsible individuals
(accountable for their actions). In the quote, Coleman argues that the
aim of social science is to “conceive of that action in a way that makes
it rational from the point of view of the actor.” (Adams and Sydie, p.
190).
The manner in which RCT proceeds is to examine social action using
the following concepts and guidelines.
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►
►
►
Resources available to the actor. These can be either tangible (money, ability to
work, capital, land) or intangible (personality, skills, abilities, attractiveness). These
include resources that affect others, personal attributes, and resources that can be
exchanged with others (Adams and Sydie. 191).
Interests, preferences, needs. Each social actor has a set of needs, interests, and
preferences. While these can change, they tend to be relatively stable over time.
Courses of social action. Each social actor has some options concerning possible
courses of action. For some individuals, and in some situations, choices may be
limited (in their daily lives, members of the proletariat have little choice but to work
at a job) while for others there are multiple options (capitalist has many options).
Each option has an expected set of outcomes associated with it that involve:
Benefits associated with different courses of social action. These may be tangible
(money, goods and services) or intangible (psychic satisfaction,
Costs of different course of action. These may be costs associated with the outcome
(eg. a woman in a family with the husband as primary income source who seeks
divorce may expect that reduced income will result) or costs associated with the action
itself (the process of divorce may be a stressful and miserable set of experiences).
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► Optimality of decision. The social actor’s decision is an optimal one in sense of
maximizing difference between benefits and costs (not just monetary, but
satisfaction, psychic, social benefits and costs). (Coleman and Farraro, p. xi). At
least the actor’s decision is based on maximizing the expected net gain from the
decision (net gain of action = benefits of action minus costs associated with the
action). That is, in taking the course of action selected by the actor, he or she
expects that his or her interests and preferences will be met to the best extent
possible.Of course, the result may not always turn out to be optimal, given
uncertainty about the future, unexpected outcome, or unintended consequences
of the social action.
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ASSUMPTIONS OF THE RATIONAL CHOICE
THEORY
1.Individualism – it is individuals who ultimately take actions.
Individuals, as actors in the society and everywhere, behave and act
always as rational beings, selfcalculating, self-interested and self-
maximizing, these individual social actions are the ultimate source of
larger social outcomes. From this first overarching assumption derives
the four other major assumptions summarized below. 2.
2.Optimality – Individual choose their actions optimally, given their
individual preferences as well as the opportunities or constraints with
which the individual faced. Abell (2000) defines optimality as taking
place when no other course of social action would be preferred by the
individual over the course of action the individual has chosen. This
does not mean that the course of action that the actor adopts is the
best in terms of some objective, and outside judgment. The rational
choice theory, therefore assumes, according to Abell (2000), that
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3. Structures -Abell argues that structures and norms that dictate a
single course of action are merely special cases of rational choice
theory. In other words, the range of choices in other circumstances
differs from choices in a strong structural circumstance, where there
may be only one choice. Although these structures may be damaging to
the rational choice model, individuals will often find a way to exercise
action optimally, hence the rational choice model may not necessarily
show harmony, consensus, or equality in courses of action. Again,
structures, as we know them, may not be optimal from the viewpoint of
an individual with few resources, however, the rational choice approach
will attempt to explain is how this situation emerges and is maintained
through rational choices.
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4.Self-Regarding Interest – This assumption states that the actions of
the individual are concerned entirely with his or her own welfare. Abell
(2000) noted that in as much as this is a key assumption in the rational
choice approach, is not as essential to the approach as the assumption
on optimality. He also noted that various types of group sentiments
could exist, such as cooperation, unselfishness, charity, which initially
may seem to be contrary to individual optimality. Rational choice
theorist may argue that these sentiments can be incorporated into the
rational choice model by observing that such sentiments may ultimately
be aimed at pursuing some form of self-interest. For instance, charity
movements or efforts Abell says, could ultimately be aimed at making
an individual feel good or could be a means of raising one’s social
esteem in the eyes of others.
5.Rationality – This appears the most predominant assumption of the
rational choice theory. All individuals, according to this assumption act in
ways that would benefit them more; every individual is most like to
undertake courses of actions that they perceive to be the best possible
17. STRENGTHS OF THE RATIONAL CHOICE
THEORY
The rational choice theory has largely emerged in the political
science subfield. It has been commended as the prototype for
a more deductive approach to political analysis. Becker (1976)
has described the rational choice model as “a unified
framework for understanding all human behaviour”, Rogowski
(1997) also asserts to the model as the “most rigorous and
the most general theory of social action that has been
advanced in this century”. Hirshleifer (1985) simply describes
the theory as “universal grammar of social science”. Other
advantages of the rational choice theory can be summarized
as;
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1.
2.
3.
Generality; This means that one set of assumptions relating to
each type of actor in a given circumstance, is compatible with
any set of structural assumptions about the environmental
setting in which the actor is present.
Parsimony; The common knowledge of rationality assumption,
the assumption of isomorphic and self-regarding utility function,
when combined with the rational optimization model, allow
rational choice theories to treat variations in choices among
actors and by an actor over time as entirely a function of their
structural position. Preferences and beliefs are simply
perceived as the only relevant variables for determining action.
Predictive; Assumptions of the rational choice model have been
used to produce a wide variety of decisive theories, whose
predictions about the measurable real world phenomena rule
out a much larger set of outcomes than what is already
19. Weaknesses of Rational Choice Theory
►
In addition to the difficulties associated with accepting the three basic
assumptions, there are a number of other problems associated with RCT.
Some of these are:
► Problems associated with inadequate information and uncertainty. This
may make it difficult for individuals to make rational decisions. As a result,
they may rely on other ways of making decisions.
Human social action and interaction are complex, and many of the
theories examined earlier may provide better guides to how these take
place.
► Theorists of rational choice argue that macro level structures and
institutions can be explained from the models of individual social action.
But there are problems of aggregation of individual to societal level
phenomena. These same difficulties exist in well developed
models.
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► Norms and habits may guide much action, and once these take root
people may not question them but use them to pursue meaningful social
action.
► One problem of RCT is that some theorists argue that almost everything
humans do is rational, even altruism and self-sacrifice. By expanding to
include all forms of action as rational, action that is nonrational or
irrational becomes part of the model. By including every possible form of
action in rational choice, it is not clear how the standards of what is
rational and what is not are constructed.
► RCT may be concerned only with instrumental rationality and not other
forms of rationality such as substantive rationality, communicative
rationality, etc.