barch_1st sem_anna univ. affl._msajaa_INTRODUCTION TO ARCHITECTURE_ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE_ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE – FORM_ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE – SPACE_PRINCIPLES OF ARCHITECTURE
barch_1st sem_anna univ. affl._msajaa_INTRODUCTION TO ARCHITECTURE_ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE_ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE – FORM_ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE – SPACE_PRINCIPLES OF ARCHITECTURE
it is about designing building by few articulation techniques, for example by altering its corners, or emphasizing its vertical, horizontal, base, roof, ceiling plane to add creativity.
the corners van be altered by cutting it, adding an element to it, curving it, opening it or even giving it a contrasting tone than the other surfaces.
it is about dimensional, subtractive, additive, centralised, radial, clustered, grid forms.
it is about the design procedure and how can we make an innovative design follow ing a few simple transformation steps.
Some of the theories are now certainly outdated and have little interest to a modern builder, but some contain still valid information about important goals of building, notably on the questions of functionality, construction, economy and ecology. While theory of design is intended to help design, it does not necessarily precede design. On the contrary, the first building where a new architectural style is exposed, is usually created intuitively, without the help of any theory, just by the skill of a brilliant architect. The design theory comes a little later, and even less brilliant architects can then base their work on it.
Theories can be seen as building-specific branches of the general goal-specific theories which pertain to all types of products and are listed in Paradigms Of Design Theory. Thematic or "analytic" theories are treatises which aim at the fulfilment of one principal goal of architecture. Theories of architectural synthesis are examples of theories which aim at fulfilling simultaneously several goals, usually all the goals that are known.
In present day, the design theory of architecture includes all that is presented in the handbooks of architects: legislation, norms and standards of building. All of them are intended to aid the work of the architect and improve its product -- the quality of buildings technology and production in general: proven theory helps designers to do their work better and more effectively. It occasionally even helps to do things that were believed to be impossible earlier on. As an old saying goes, there is nothing more practical than a good theory. The aesthetization of utilitarian ideas is the primacy of architecture as a vessel of life, accommodating the needs of human beings .
Architectural Design Process for Beginners/StudentsGary Gilson
This presentation is intended for Semester 2/3 Architecture students who are just stepping into Architectural design from Basic Design/Other generic preparatory subjects.
This is a step-by-step visual presentation on the Architectural Design Process followed in Architecture Schools (in India). The approach to design may vary and is subject to the respective School’s philosophy and methodology.
All drawings/models/renders/sketches are used only for educational purposes and the rights and ownership of these belong to the respective Architects/Designers.
Sense and Sensitivity in Architecture – The Use of Five Senses in Space makingPremier Publishers
This study intends to look at the importance of the five senses in experiencing a space. The five senses include vision, touch, olfaction, taste and auditory. Architects need to look into how a space interacts with its end user. Architecture is the journey and not just the destination. It’s a whole package of experiencing a space and it’s not just about the architect. In the process of thinking and perception of architecture there is always more importance given to visual senses than the other senses and the problems of contemporary architecture is rooted in visual dominance and may be the result of unbalanced senses system. All our information about our surrounding world is achieved by our senses and this information help us in perception and recognition. A building should bring into perspective all the five senses, thereby giving a three-dimensional angle to the structure. This study also looks at the role of perception of a space for a person who is sensory impaired such as a person with blindness, deafness, dumbness etc. Therefore, we use Phenomenology of Architecture to experience a space through sensory properties.
Architectural Design Concepts Approaches - كونسيبت التصميم المعمارى و الفكرة ...Galala University
Architectural Design Concepts Approaches
Summary of several Architectural Design Concepts Approaches to help students generate design concepts.
كونسيبت التصميم المعمارى
الفكرة المعمارية
طرق مختلفة لمساعدة الطلبة للوصول الى كونسيبت او فكرة التصميم المعمارى
Site Planning- Principles and Considerations ameed inam
Basic Principles of Site Planning in Architecture and Components of Site Planning.
Inventory of Site Planning and its implementation in Building Design as well as Site Development
it is about designing building by few articulation techniques, for example by altering its corners, or emphasizing its vertical, horizontal, base, roof, ceiling plane to add creativity.
the corners van be altered by cutting it, adding an element to it, curving it, opening it or even giving it a contrasting tone than the other surfaces.
it is about dimensional, subtractive, additive, centralised, radial, clustered, grid forms.
it is about the design procedure and how can we make an innovative design follow ing a few simple transformation steps.
Some of the theories are now certainly outdated and have little interest to a modern builder, but some contain still valid information about important goals of building, notably on the questions of functionality, construction, economy and ecology. While theory of design is intended to help design, it does not necessarily precede design. On the contrary, the first building where a new architectural style is exposed, is usually created intuitively, without the help of any theory, just by the skill of a brilliant architect. The design theory comes a little later, and even less brilliant architects can then base their work on it.
Theories can be seen as building-specific branches of the general goal-specific theories which pertain to all types of products and are listed in Paradigms Of Design Theory. Thematic or "analytic" theories are treatises which aim at the fulfilment of one principal goal of architecture. Theories of architectural synthesis are examples of theories which aim at fulfilling simultaneously several goals, usually all the goals that are known.
In present day, the design theory of architecture includes all that is presented in the handbooks of architects: legislation, norms and standards of building. All of them are intended to aid the work of the architect and improve its product -- the quality of buildings technology and production in general: proven theory helps designers to do their work better and more effectively. It occasionally even helps to do things that were believed to be impossible earlier on. As an old saying goes, there is nothing more practical than a good theory. The aesthetization of utilitarian ideas is the primacy of architecture as a vessel of life, accommodating the needs of human beings .
Architectural Design Process for Beginners/StudentsGary Gilson
This presentation is intended for Semester 2/3 Architecture students who are just stepping into Architectural design from Basic Design/Other generic preparatory subjects.
This is a step-by-step visual presentation on the Architectural Design Process followed in Architecture Schools (in India). The approach to design may vary and is subject to the respective School’s philosophy and methodology.
All drawings/models/renders/sketches are used only for educational purposes and the rights and ownership of these belong to the respective Architects/Designers.
Sense and Sensitivity in Architecture – The Use of Five Senses in Space makingPremier Publishers
This study intends to look at the importance of the five senses in experiencing a space. The five senses include vision, touch, olfaction, taste and auditory. Architects need to look into how a space interacts with its end user. Architecture is the journey and not just the destination. It’s a whole package of experiencing a space and it’s not just about the architect. In the process of thinking and perception of architecture there is always more importance given to visual senses than the other senses and the problems of contemporary architecture is rooted in visual dominance and may be the result of unbalanced senses system. All our information about our surrounding world is achieved by our senses and this information help us in perception and recognition. A building should bring into perspective all the five senses, thereby giving a three-dimensional angle to the structure. This study also looks at the role of perception of a space for a person who is sensory impaired such as a person with blindness, deafness, dumbness etc. Therefore, we use Phenomenology of Architecture to experience a space through sensory properties.
Architectural Design Concepts Approaches - كونسيبت التصميم المعمارى و الفكرة ...Galala University
Architectural Design Concepts Approaches
Summary of several Architectural Design Concepts Approaches to help students generate design concepts.
كونسيبت التصميم المعمارى
الفكرة المعمارية
طرق مختلفة لمساعدة الطلبة للوصول الى كونسيبت او فكرة التصميم المعمارى
Site Planning- Principles and Considerations ameed inam
Basic Principles of Site Planning in Architecture and Components of Site Planning.
Inventory of Site Planning and its implementation in Building Design as well as Site Development
In this theory the form is outcome of various physical, social, psychological and symbolic functions
For example if we want to design concert hall, the form will be the abstract of functional data which is defined by the distance of the seats the place of foyer the relation between all functions and also a symbolic appearance of the building. In this type of design the context of the building is not considered and we can put the designed project in different sites and places with no attention to the contextual matters. In this theory architects must act like a scientist. It means that they have to find some form in a body of pre existing facts. So it can be named as kind of true and false game. The designer will do its job according to client`s needs climatological conditions and community values. The difference is here that architects cannot define general lows for the design solution as like as the scientists do.
Theory of Architecture 2 class
Report by: Michelle S. Estrada & Caren V.Cuevas
Central Colleges of the Philippines
College of Architecture
2nd Semester S.Y. 2015-16
December 2015
Postmodern architecture is a reaction and evolution to the modern architecture that came before it. Not only did designers begin to make use of new innovations, but at the same time they appropriated design elements from the past. Buildings became an eclectic mix of old and new as the old "Form follows function" mantra was forgotten. One of the iconic postmodern examples is the Sony Building in New York City.
As with many cultural movements, some of postmodernism's most pronounced and visible ideas can be seen in architecture. The functional and formalized shapes and spaces of the modernist movement are replaced by aesthetics: form is adopted for its own sake, and new ways of viewing familiar styles and space abound.
Classic examples of modern architecture are the Lever House and the Seagram Building in commercial space, and the architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright or the Bauhaus movement in private or communal spaces.
Transitional examples of postmodern architecture are the Portland Building in Portland, Oregon and the Sony Building in New York City, which borrows elements and references from the past and reintroduces color and symbolism to architecture.
Structuralism is a mode of thinking .pptxseyefeselasse
Structuralism is a mode of thinking and a method of analysis practiced in 20th-centurysocial sciences and humanities. Methodologically, it analyses large-scale systems by examining the relations and functions of the smallest constituent elements of such systems, which range from human languages and cultural practices to folktales and literary texts.
Towards the Egyptian Charter for Conservation of Cultural Heritages
1 Associate Professor Dr. Corinna Rossi , 2 * Sara Rabie
1 Department of Architecture and Urban Design, Faculty of Architecture, Politecnico di Milano Cairo, Milan, Italy
2 Department of Architecture and Urban Design, Faculty of Architecture, German University in Cairo, Cairo, Egypt
1 E-mail: corinna.rossi@polimi.it , 2 E-mail: sarah.rabie@guc.edu.eg
ARTICLE INFO:
Article History:
Received 5 April 2021
Accepted 15 June 2021
Available online 25 June 2021
Keywords:
Cultural Heritages;
Conservation;
History;
Value;
Authenticity;
Europe;
Egypt.
ABSTRACT
The notion of “Cultural heritage” is quite modern compared to other humanistic fields developed in the last century. Conservation as a science has emerged and took shape during international conventions and treaties in many places in Europe and developed various frameworks to recognize the heritage and its value but based on “Eurocentric bias” criteria. The fact of sharing universal values and common practices during the age of globalization had a significant impact on conservation actions in contexts utterly different from western societies and don’t share the same historical or cultural dimensions. Therefore, this study traces the history of the evolution of conservation in the west from two perspectives; the historical one and the developing methodologies, and the philosophies behind the main theories in conservation. Cultural heritage is a reflection of the identity of the society and its past; thus, this study outlines the development of conservation practices in Egypt within the international approaches in a chronological order to investigate the social response and the impact of the political and cultural influence of the cultural consciousness of the society and the conservation actions in the Egyptian context. Furthermore, to investigate the contribution of international charters in developing national policies in Egypt.
JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS (2021), 5(1), 101-111.
Disciplines in Social Science. This talks about social Sciences. Social Science has plenty of branchesbbzbsbsbsbsjsjzjjzjznznzbzbznzmMKKKjJJNNznznznzbxbxzcxnxbvcmmskaksjdhdgdgswrwrtwuqiqoqow you can get a hold of the earth it's not the best gift 🎁 I think I need to operate a few jzjsbxbxbxjxjxjxjd shhhh I think it's social and emotional and how did economist I will let you can get it will take us out on the boat 🚢 I can be traced back to two people live in your dreams I love it so tough lately I can't get over the next two days I have a question ❓ with a glimmering and then we have to go on the study what was easy enough haha 😆😆😆😆 well we will do my knees are the things I can be there at shgazcxvnLskdhgdywow you can do the 🔚 with work we were in English pls karon pa state police to be your friend is going on in your dreams and the systems and we will go on a while positivism you can get a ride I will let her be there in about human nature and bring it home 🏠 I think I have to do some research and development of work to the rules with w
Sujay core principles of twenty first century historiography final final finalSujay Rao Mandavilli
This paper extends the concepts delineated in our earlier paper ‘Historiography by Objectives: A new approach for the study of history within the framework of the proposed Twenty-first Century school of Historiography’ and uses them to enunciate the core principles which we believe will form a part of the proposed Twenty-first century school of Historiography. This paper therefore strives to provide the vehicular platform upon which the objectives set forth in the aforesaid paper should be ideally nurtured and furthered. This paper additionally strives to buttress and substantiate our proposals with further arguments. The Twenty-first century school of historiography, it must be stated at the very outset, does not stem from any kind of a rebellious, a contrarian or a recalcitrant approach but intends to ensure that the field is suitably modernized keeping in mind the requirements of the Twenty-first century without jettisoning appreciable or profitable aspects of existing approaches. This paper attempts, at the same time to steer clear of the perils and pitfalls of postmodernism and intellectual nerdism and forge a new trajectory altogether. This approach also seeks to be as commodious and all-encompassing as possible by proactively embracing as many existing approaches as possible except dour and anachronistic ones, and others that have outlived their utility. It also seeks to formulate dialectical approaches in all facets and endeavours. We also argue that this is not only because all existing approaches are inadequate to cater to the rapidly changing requirements of the Twenty-First Century but also because we are already at the thin end of the wedge and existing approaches are inevitably fraught with unsavoury consequences, and will throw up counter-reactions in the longer term. As noted in our earlier papers, dialectical approaches and approaches based on critical analysis and scientific method would be the key to grappling with the sobering realities and the changed requirements of the Twenty-first century and would be the keystone to further progress across varied disciplines. This paper also emphasizes the proactive aspect of historiography, as this is at the core of all efforts to make it a meaningful and a modern discipline. This paper also delineates the social duties and functions of a historian and reinforces his role and duties in ushering in rapid social and cultural change and expediting scientific progress across disciplines. ‘Historiography by Objectives’ and other attendant approaches, first mooted in the aforesaid paper, continue, of course, to be an inalienable part of the overall proposals of this paper.
A B S T R A C T
Modern architecture developed more than a century ago to find solutions suitable to solve the new concerns of the industrial revolution that changed the social idea of the world in all aspects. Bauhaus school which established by Walter Gropius in 1919 adopted too many principles and ideas that were totally new to the architecture concept and theory at that time; their principles started from Simplicity, Angularity, Abstraction, Consistency, Unity, Organization, Economy, Subtlety, Continuity, Regularity, and Sharpness. Those principles affected the architectural world and found its way through many applications in different parts of the world. The unlimited space or the international space that had a significant influence on the architecture space and form as well as the introduction of the new material, the anti- decorating, and Platonic forms had worked to reconstruct the architecture in the world. Cyprus as an Island close to the sources of the movement got the influence from the modern movement. The study will concentrate on Efruz Housing which designed by Ahmet Vural, who developed the project in the 60th of the last century. The aim of the research is to find the relationship and effects of Bauhaus school in Cyprus through studying and analyzing some of Ahmet vural works. The methodology will depend on a comparison with the traditional housing that preceded Mr. Vural work and how the Modernism changed the main features of the housing on the Island.
CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS (2017) 1(2), 1-10. Doi: 10.25034/ijcua.2017.3645
Water scarcity is the lack of fresh water resources to meet the standard water demand. There are two type of water scarcity. One is physical. The other is economic water scarcity.
Forklift Classes Overview by Intella PartsIntella Parts
Discover the different forklift classes and their specific applications. Learn how to choose the right forklift for your needs to ensure safety, efficiency, and compliance in your operations.
For more technical information, visit our website https://intellaparts.com
Vaccine management system project report documentation..pdfKamal Acharya
The Division of Vaccine and Immunization is facing increasing difficulty monitoring vaccines and other commodities distribution once they have been distributed from the national stores. With the introduction of new vaccines, more challenges have been anticipated with this additions posing serious threat to the already over strained vaccine supply chain system in Kenya.
Cosmetic shop management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
Buying new cosmetic products is difficult. It can even be scary for those who have sensitive skin and are prone to skin trouble. The information needed to alleviate this problem is on the back of each product, but it's thought to interpret those ingredient lists unless you have a background in chemistry.
Instead of buying and hoping for the best, we can use data science to help us predict which products may be good fits for us. It includes various function programs to do the above mentioned tasks.
Data file handling has been effectively used in the program.
The automated cosmetic shop management system should deal with the automation of general workflow and administration process of the shop. The main processes of the system focus on customer's request where the system is able to search the most appropriate products and deliver it to the customers. It should help the employees to quickly identify the list of cosmetic product that have reached the minimum quantity and also keep a track of expired date for each cosmetic product. It should help the employees to find the rack number in which the product is placed.It is also Faster and more efficient way.
Quality defects in TMT Bars, Possible causes and Potential Solutions.PrashantGoswami42
Maintaining high-quality standards in the production of TMT bars is crucial for ensuring structural integrity in construction. Addressing common defects through careful monitoring, standardized processes, and advanced technology can significantly improve the quality of TMT bars. Continuous training and adherence to quality control measures will also play a pivotal role in minimizing these defects.
CFD Simulation of By-pass Flow in a HRSG module by R&R Consult.pptxR&R Consult
CFD analysis is incredibly effective at solving mysteries and improving the performance of complex systems!
Here's a great example: At a large natural gas-fired power plant, where they use waste heat to generate steam and energy, they were puzzled that their boiler wasn't producing as much steam as expected.
R&R and Tetra Engineering Group Inc. were asked to solve the issue with reduced steam production.
An inspection had shown that a significant amount of hot flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes, where the heat was supposed to be transferred.
R&R Consult conducted a CFD analysis, which revealed that 6.3% of the flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes without transferring heat. The analysis also showed that the flue gas was instead being directed along the sides of the boiler and between the modules that were supposed to capture the heat. This was the cause of the reduced performance.
Based on our results, Tetra Engineering installed covering plates to reduce the bypass flow. This improved the boiler's performance and increased electricity production.
It is always satisfying when we can help solve complex challenges like this. Do your systems also need a check-up or optimization? Give us a call!
Work done in cooperation with James Malloy and David Moelling from Tetra Engineering.
More examples of our work https://www.r-r-consult.dk/en/cases-en/
Hybrid optimization of pumped hydro system and solar- Engr. Abdul-Azeez.pdffxintegritypublishin
Advancements in technology unveil a myriad of electrical and electronic breakthroughs geared towards efficiently harnessing limited resources to meet human energy demands. The optimization of hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems plays a pivotal role in utilizing natural resources effectively. This initiative not only benefits humanity but also fosters environmental sustainability. The study investigated the design optimization of these hybrid systems, focusing on understanding solar radiation patterns, identifying geographical influences on solar radiation, formulating a mathematical model for system optimization, and determining the optimal configuration of PV panels and pumped hydro storage. Through a comparative analysis approach and eight weeks of data collection, the study addressed key research questions related to solar radiation patterns and optimal system design. The findings highlighted regions with heightened solar radiation levels, showcasing substantial potential for power generation and emphasizing the system's efficiency. Optimizing system design significantly boosted power generation, promoted renewable energy utilization, and enhanced energy storage capacity. The study underscored the benefits of optimizing hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems for sustainable energy usage. Optimizing the design of solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems as examined across diverse climatic conditions in a developing country, not only enhances power generation but also improves the integration of renewable energy sources and boosts energy storage capacities, particularly beneficial for less economically prosperous regions. Additionally, the study provides valuable insights for advancing energy research in economically viable areas. Recommendations included conducting site-specific assessments, utilizing advanced modeling tools, implementing regular maintenance protocols, and enhancing communication among system components.
Immunizing Image Classifiers Against Localized Adversary Attacksgerogepatton
This paper addresses the vulnerability of deep learning models, particularly convolutional neural networks
(CNN)s, to adversarial attacks and presents a proactive training technique designed to counter them. We
introduce a novel volumization algorithm, which transforms 2D images into 3D volumetric representations.
When combined with 3D convolution and deep curriculum learning optimization (CLO), itsignificantly improves
the immunity of models against localized universal attacks by up to 40%. We evaluate our proposed approach
using contemporary CNN architectures and the modified Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR-10
and CIFAR-100) and ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC12) datasets, showcasing
accuracy improvements over previous techniques. The results indicate that the combination of the volumetric
input and curriculum learning holds significant promise for mitigating adversarial attacks without necessitating
adversary training.
Industrial Training at Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL)MdTanvirMahtab2
This presentation is about the working procedure of Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL). A Govt. owned Company of Bangladesh Chemical Industries Corporation under Ministry of Industries.
Student information management system project report ii.pdfKamal Acharya
Our project explains about the student management. This project mainly explains the various actions related to student details. This project shows some ease in adding, editing and deleting the student details. It also provides a less time consuming process for viewing, adding, editing and deleting the marks of the students.
About
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Technical Specifications
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
Key Features
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system
• Copatiable with IDM8000 CCR
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
Application
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
TECHNICAL TRAINING MANUAL GENERAL FAMILIARIZATION COURSEDuvanRamosGarzon1
AIRCRAFT GENERAL
The Single Aisle is the most advanced family aircraft in service today, with fly-by-wire flight controls.
The A318, A319, A320 and A321 are twin-engine subsonic medium range aircraft.
The family offers a choice of engines
Gen AI Study Jams _ For the GDSC Leads in India.pdf
Theories of Architecture
1. Theories of Architecture
IVth Year,
Theory of Architecture II,
Department of Architecture,
School of Civil Engineering and Architecture,
Adama Science and Technology University,
Mr. Sumantra Misra (M.Arch) PhD Research Scholar, Asst. Professor, Department of
Architecture, School of Civil Engineering and Architeture, Adama Science and Technology
University
2. For the past thirty five years ‘history
of architecture’ has meant history of
style, patronage and theory. We now
have a pretty fair command of these
subjects. There is a tendency now to
look more deeply into the social,
economic and industrial hinterland. –
John Summerson, The UK Construction History
Society innaugural Journal(1985)
3. Introduction
The quest for understanding why the
architecture of any place or period
developed as it did has led to many
theories.
These have helped historians to
understand the production and use of the
built environment and helped to define
organising principles for selecting and
differentiating between the wealth of
information.
But they have been challenged.
4. They can say as much about the
historian, as identifying reasons for the
emergence of particular built forms.
The theories generally fall into four main
groups:
1. Rational, technological and constructional;
2. Material, economic and social;
3. Religious, cultural and philosophical;
4. The spirit of the age (Zeitgeist).
5. Technical and materialist
theories
Tends to seek answers either in terms
of new technological
Or
Constructional developments, or as
the result of applying logic to
technological or practical problems.
6. The technical and rational explanation
of architecture was an approach
largely developed by French architects
and theorists such as Laugier*, J.-N.-
L. Durand* and Viollet-le-Duc*. Known
as rationalists they also argued that
merit in the architecture of their own
day should come from giving priority to
the logic of the essential structure or
supporting elements of a building.
7. The second theory argues that
architecture reflects the material,
economic and social conditions of the
time. It therefore seeks to set
architecture in this context. Buildings
are related to the social and economic
system that has encouraged certain
social relationships, methods of
exchange and manufacture.
8. These give rise to particular patterns
of patronage and consumption,
techniques of construction, building
types and planning. This focus on the
material conditions, however, denies
the role of the patron and architect
and fails to account for the diversity of
expression at any one time.
9. Religious and cultural theories
The theory that architecture expresses
the religious, cultural and
philosophical ideas of the period
implies that if we know enough, it
should be possible to forecast what
the architecture will be.
This implies a simple and direct
relationship between architecture and
these ideas, rather than
acknowledging that all societies and
their cultural manifestations are
complex organisms.
10. For A. W. N. Pugin, all buildings
reflected the society in which they
were built, but the greatest influences
on the various styles of architecture
were religious ideas and ceremonies:
every ornament, every detail had a
mystical import.
11. The pyramid and obelisk of Egyptian
Architecture, its Lotus capitals, its
gigantic sphinxes and multiplied
hieroglyphics, were not mere fanciful
Architectural combinations and
ornaments, but emblems of the
philosophy and mythology of that
nation.
12. A devout Catholic architect and theorist,
Pugin had an idealised view of medieval
history and architecture. He argued in
True Principles of Pointed or Christian
Architecture (1841) that:
◦ Constructional truth meant that the
construction of a building was evident and
not concealed; ornament was used, but it did
not obscure the construction and it was
appropriate in form and meaning.
◦ Truth to materials meant that all materials
were chosen for their particular qualities and
not painted to look like other materials.
13. Religious and cultural theories –
Structuralism
Structuralism is a more recent theory
that focuses on religious, cultural and
philosophical ideas and derives from
structural anthropology that Claude Lévi-
Strauss pioneered in the 1950s and
1960s.
He was influenced by the theories of
Ferdinand de Saussure, a Swiss linguist,
who argued that spoken language was a
code that determines what messages
are available and that it was a self-
sufficient system with sets of rules
independent of ‘reality’.
14. Structuralists have studied buildings
not as isolated cultural artefacts but as
part of a total system of ‘constructed’
knowledge involving the whole culture,
its myths and rituals.
They have examined individual
cultures synchronically, or at one point
in time, as a single system of
meanings like a language.
15. The culture was ‘read’ like a text revealing that
buildings were inextricably interwoven with the
people’s ideas, social structures and ways of life.
This approach has been particularly effective in
studying vernacular architecture.
Climate, ecology, available materials, technical
knowledge and the character of the local
economy provided a framework of possibilities
and constraints for what was constructed and a
way of understanding vernacular dwellings and
community buildings.
However, it was clear that the diversity of
solutions, whether of specific layouts or forms,
indicated there was also an important social and
cultural input.
16. The theories of structuralists have added
immeasurably to our understanding of
buildings.
Architectural historians might also wish
to investigate the tension between the
forms as carriers of symbolic meaning
and as a product of physical and
technical constraints.
They would also want to undertake
research into the historical sources of the
design.
17. Zeitgeist (Spirit of the age)
This theory came from the German
philosopher Hegel and provided a
conceptual framework for
understanding the historical
development of art and architecture
for the major part of the twentieth
century.
18. Central to the concept of the Zeitgeist
is the idea of history as a progressive
process.
The process of history which gave rise
to each period was an evolving ‘spirit’,
which pervaded and gave unity to
every area of human endeavour –
religion, law, customs, morality,
technology, science, art and
architecture.
19. Every historian identifies and classifies
material, and in the process common ideas
and themes become apparent.
Those who accepted the concept of the
Zeitgeist argued that styles such as neo-
classicism in the mid-eighteenth century,
modernism in the 1920s or deconstruction
today showed themselves across the arts.
Because these styles were evident in
architecture, painting, furniture, ceramics,
dress and literature they were manifestations
of the Zeitgeist and the similarities in the
work of architects, painters, designers and
writers were the result of living in the same
period.
20. Another interpretation of this theory
argues that although many styles may
coexist at any one time, only one
major style truly reflects the Zeitgeist.
The danger of this explanation is that
it encourages the search for
consistency in order to build a
coherent picture. Anything that does
not fit into this picture is ignored or
undervalued, as it does not show the
all-pervading Zeitgeist spirit.
21. Conclusion
Today the most familiar theories and
approaches are being questioned.
Architectural histories reflect the
impact of feminist, Marxist,
structuralist, environmental,
semiological and socio-political ideas.
The subject is responding to the
linguistic theories of Derrida and
others, just as much as it is to the
social psychoanalysis of post-
Freudian critics.