An experiment was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of different mulching materials on soil moisture retention and yield of lettuce at the greenhouse located at Luyengo campus of the University of Eswatini during the months of January and February, 2019. The treatments consisted of grass mulch (GM), Plastic mulch (PM), leaf debris mulch (LM), and no mulch (NM) which was used as a control. Each of the treatments had four replications. The organic mulch was applied at a thickness of 10 cm, and the plots for experiments were randomly selected. Each plant received 600 cm 3 of water every 3 days using a homemade drip irrigation system (equivalent to 6 mm per irrigation circle). Data on soil moisture content was collected using the gravimetric method every 3 days (before irrigation).The growth parameters of the lettuce plants that were collected weekly were plant height, leaf number and leaf area. Both wet weight and dry weight yield were determined for each plot at the end of the experiment (six weeks after planting). Data collected was coded and entered into SPSS computer software. Data analysis was conducted using the analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the least significance difference (LSD) test to determine if means were significantly different. The results showed that GM treatment had high mean moisture retention at 9.3%. It was followed by PM and LM at 8.9%. The lowest moisture retention was realized from the control (No mulching) at 7.9%.The differences in mean moisture retention was significant between NM and NM (p<0.05). The same pattern was observed for the growth parameters, where GN had highest values and the control had the lowest values. The wet mass yield was highest for GM, at 164.7 g. The yield from LM was 149.3 g. It was followed by PM at 141.3 g. The lowest yield was obtained from the control at 108 g. The difference in mean yields for GM and NM were significant (p<0.05). They were not significantly different for all the other treatments (p>0.050. It was concluded from the experiment that grass mulching resulted in improved moisture retention and high yields.
Soil moisture conservation role of mulching and hydrophilic polymerssukhjinder mann
Soil moisture conservation role of mulching and hydrophilic polymers; Methods to conserve moisture, mulch types, polymer types, importance, advantages and disadvantages
The effect of organic mulch on the growth and yield of Spinach (Spinacia oler...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
— An experiment was conducted in a greenhouse at the Luyengo campus of the University of Swaziland to determine the effect of organic mulch on the growth and yield of spinach. The experiment was conducted between the months of January and February, 2017. The experiment was a completely randomized design (CRD), with treated sewage mulch (TSM) and organic compost mulch (OCM) as treatments. The no mulch (NML) was used as a control. Spinach seedlings were planted at a spacing of 15 cm within rows and 30 cm between rows. Weeding and pest control measures were done uniformly across the treatments, when and as required. The data collected included the percentage moisture retained by the different treatments on the soil, growth parameters (leaf width, leaf length, leaf number, leaf area, plant height) and yield at harvest. The results displayed a significant difference (P<0.05)><0.05). The yield also varied across the treatments as TSM had a dry mass of 43.0 g, followed by OCM at 23.4 g and the no mulch treatment recorded a dry mass of 20.9 g. The results showed that mulching improved the performance of the spinach plants in terms of plant growth, moisture retention and yield.
SALT is a diversified farming system which can be considered agroforestry since rows of permanent shrubs like coffee, cacao, citrus and other fruit trees are dispersed throughout the farm plot.
The strips not occupied by permanent crops, however, are planted alternately to cereals (corn, upland rice, sorghum, etc.) or other crops (sweet potato, melon, pineapple, castor bean, etc.) and legumes (soybean, mung bean, peanut, etc.).
Soil moisture conservation role of mulching and hydrophilic polymerssukhjinder mann
Soil moisture conservation role of mulching and hydrophilic polymers; Methods to conserve moisture, mulch types, polymer types, importance, advantages and disadvantages
The effect of organic mulch on the growth and yield of Spinach (Spinacia oler...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
— An experiment was conducted in a greenhouse at the Luyengo campus of the University of Swaziland to determine the effect of organic mulch on the growth and yield of spinach. The experiment was conducted between the months of January and February, 2017. The experiment was a completely randomized design (CRD), with treated sewage mulch (TSM) and organic compost mulch (OCM) as treatments. The no mulch (NML) was used as a control. Spinach seedlings were planted at a spacing of 15 cm within rows and 30 cm between rows. Weeding and pest control measures were done uniformly across the treatments, when and as required. The data collected included the percentage moisture retained by the different treatments on the soil, growth parameters (leaf width, leaf length, leaf number, leaf area, plant height) and yield at harvest. The results displayed a significant difference (P<0.05)><0.05). The yield also varied across the treatments as TSM had a dry mass of 43.0 g, followed by OCM at 23.4 g and the no mulch treatment recorded a dry mass of 20.9 g. The results showed that mulching improved the performance of the spinach plants in terms of plant growth, moisture retention and yield.
SALT is a diversified farming system which can be considered agroforestry since rows of permanent shrubs like coffee, cacao, citrus and other fruit trees are dispersed throughout the farm plot.
The strips not occupied by permanent crops, however, are planted alternately to cereals (corn, upland rice, sorghum, etc.) or other crops (sweet potato, melon, pineapple, castor bean, etc.) and legumes (soybean, mung bean, peanut, etc.).
Soil is one of the most important water storage in nature.
Water content in the soil is very significant parameter of water regime of the country which significantly depends on soil area and quality of soil. Lower acreage of soil and lower soil quality lead to less water content in the country and vice versa.
Human activities (agriculture, forest management, soil sealing) are still important factors of water regimes of land.
Mainly agriculture drives the soil water regime from positive or negative points of view.
Screening and Selection of Drought-Tolerant Groundnut Varieties Based on Yiel...Premier Publishers
Drought is the most important abiotic limitation to groundnut production in Northern Ghana. Drought, during the pod-filling stages is even more devastating. The current study was conducted to screen groundnut varieties, for drought-tolerance based on yield and other traits. Evaluation of groundnut genotypes was under two environments/water regimes; well-watered and water-stressed. ANOVA was run for Quantitative data. Means were separated by l.s.d. at 95% confidence level. Correlation analyses were performed using SPSS. Combined analysis of variance was computed for the groundnuts across water regimes. Dendrograms were generated using yield data and based on Euclidean distance. Scoring and ranking was used to assess disease incidence on a scale of 1-5. Results indicate that end-of-season drought caused pod yield reduction that varied across genotypes. The Drought Tolerance Index ranged from 0.53 (Kpanieli) to 2.40 (Agric-Manipinta). The highest yielding genotypes under water-stressed condition were Sinkara (582g/plot), Nkatie-sari (512g/plot), Ndogba (470g/plot), Chaco-pag (400g/plot) and Oboshie (381g/plot) and Chinese (local) (340g/plot). Farmers’ selected Sinkara, Ndogba, Chinese, Nkatie-sari, Agric-Manipinta and Chaco-pag based on pod yield and biomass production. Sinkara (0.8798), Sokan-donworor (0.8739), Kpach-Isah (0.8318) and Kpanieli (0.8016) recorded very high mean pod harvest index values, while Ndogba recorded the lowest (0.2252). Combined analysis of variance for pod yield among all the genotypes indicate that the groundnuts performed differently in both water regimes due to the significant interaction effect observed between water regimes and genotypes. Information generated from this study can be used to develop new groundnut varieties that combine higher yield and drought tolerant traits.
Soil Erosion by Sustainable Phytoremediation Process Using Solar IrrigationIJMERJOURNAL
ABSTRACT: Soil and land degradation is considered for slope land such as riverbank or stream bank and lands of high forced water runoff and rainfall causes severe soil erosion is the concern of this work. The major cause of runaway unprotected soil particles due to the natural reasons, thus making uneven soil plain surface scan be remedied by tree plantation or vegetation. A precision mirror-amplifier is designed for primarily sensing soil moisture and pH level to provide eventual environmental conditions needed for irrigation and fertilization for plants to grow healthy, which in turn reduces the soil erosion. Another special sensor designed and employed here that can monitor the degradation due to erosion and the system can determine the soil’s critical limits. To design the system in an IC form, VLSI design MAGIC CAD tool is used to complete. Results from PSPICE has confirmed the proper performance of the IC and proved to be very applicable in the environment controlling systems. In this paper, design methods and results are presented for a sustainable cultivation technology to prevent soil erosion at slope land
Effects of salinity stress on growth, Water use efficiency and biomass partit...Innspub Net
Future crop production is predicted to face significant challenges from salinity stress due to secondary salinization. Therefore future-proofing crop production in these conditions is an essential path towards addressing food security. We evaluated the effect of irrigation with water of 0, 4 and 8 ppt salinity on growth, biomass partitioning, WUE and chlorophyll fluorescence of Vernonia hymenolepis A.Rich as ameliorated by fertilization with three levels of NPK20:10:10. Data were analysed for variance using the General Linear Model ANOVA procedure, after positive tests for normality and homogeneity of variance. Means were separated through the Dunnett test. Pearson Correlation was done to determine relationship between variables and these were spatially projected using the Factor Analysis procedure, without rotation. Under fertilization at 8 g NPK20:10:10 per plant, growth was stimulated by salinity increase to 4 ppt (35.43cm) compared to 30.43cm for control plants. Fertilizer application significantly improved all the biomass fractions of plants irrigated with water of 4 ppt relative to the control, while root:shoot ratios were highest for unfertilized plants indicating resource re-allocation to roots for better foraging. Chlorophyll fluorescence ranged between 0.716 and 0.727 and did not differ significantly across treatments. These values indicate that all treatments were under stress, including control plants. Values of WUE and RGR indicate that fertilization of plants irrigated with water of 4ppt salinity enhances growth and Harvest Index of V. hymenolepis, in spite of the registered stress. This is significant to future food security.
Soil fertility is the backbone of agriculture systems and plays a key role in determining food quantity and quality. The intension of soil fertility management is to improve soil buffering capacity and to reduce soil degradation. Soil health is fundamental for a healthy food production. It provides essential nutrients, water, oxygen and support to the roots, all elements that favor the growth and development of plants for food production. Now the Indian population is 1.37 billion (Census India gov.in) Land area availability is 3.287 million km2. Net cultivable area is 143 million ha. Degraded land in India around 141 million ha. Per capita land availability is 0.3 ha per farmer (Indian express Nov 6,2009). Food grain supply 234.0 million tons, food grain demand 236.2 million tones (Praduman Kumar et al.,2016). In the year 2019 Global Hunger Index(GHI), India ranks 102nd out of 117 qualifying countries. With a score of 30.3, India suffers from a level of hunger that is serious (Global Hunger Index Organization). Nearly 1 billion people around the world suffer from hunger. Soil management is important, both directly and indirectly, to crop productivity, environmental sustainability, and human health (Mittal et al., 2008). To achieve future food security, the management of soils in a sustainable manner will be the challenge, through proper nutrient management and appropriate conservation practices. Such as maintain soil organic carbon, effective utilization of natural resources, use of non-monetary input like LEISA etc., will be the better option to fulfils the ever-growing population’s food and nutritional security.
The entire country was fully analysed and mapped for identifying the wastelands. Among all the states, the districts which have more than 15% area under wasteland were identified for detailed mapping. In order to assess the nature and propose of rejuvenating the wastelands, a common classification system has been adopted.
Effect of nitrogen fertilizer rates and intra-row spacing on yield and yield ...Premier Publishers
A field experiment was conducted at Gode Polytechnic College demonstration farm in 2013 under irrigation to observe the effect of six N rates (0, 46, 69, 92, 115 and 138 kg ha-1) and four intra-row spacing levels (7.5, 10 12.5 and 15 cm) on yield and yield components of onion (Allium cepa L.). The experiment was laid out according to randomized complete block design in factorial arrangement with three replications. Results of the analysis revealed that the interaction effects of N rates and intra-row spacing showed highly significant (P<0.01) effect on harvest index, fresh biomass yield, dry biomass yield, total bulb yield and marketable bulb yield. Thus, according to the result of partial Budget analysis application of 138kg N ha-1 planted at 7.5cm plant to plant distance was found the best treatment than others in relation to yield and yield components of onion under Gode condition.
Comparing the performance of a home-made bottle drip to a commercial drip sys...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
A study was conducted in which lettuce (Lactucasativa L.) was grown in a plot at the Faculty of Agriculture at Luyengo Campus of the University of Eswatini to compare three different irrigation methods on the production of marketable heads of lettuce. The performance of lettuce under a commercial drip tape was compared with a home-made bottle drip and a hand watering can as used typically by rural people in the country. The commercial drip had emitters discharging 2 liters per hour and therefore 2 liters per hour was applied with both the home-made bottle drip and the watering can during irrigation. The irrigation frequency was every after two days for all the treatments. The plot sizes were 1.5 m x 4.0 m and there were four replications per treatment. There were eighteen lettuce plants per plot. The lettuce was grown for a period of four weeks and then harvested whole. Yield parameters measured included the plant height (cm), leaf area index (LAI), root length (cm) and the fresh head mass (grams). Significant differences (P < 0.01) between treatments were obtained for fresh lettuce head mass and root length. The commercial drip treatment had largest fresh mass at 226.8 g. It was followed by bottle drip at 184.8 g. The control had the lowest yield at 165.3 g. There were no significant differences between treatments for plant height and leaf area index. It was concluded that the home-made bottle drip irrigation method could be recommended for rural people who cannot afford to buy the commercial drip system for the production of vegetables for household consumption.
Integrated Effect of Mulching Materials and Furrow Irrigation Methods on Yiel...Premier Publishers
A field experiment was conducted at Werer, Middle Awash Valley during the dry season of the 2016-17, 2017-18 and 2018-19 to investigate the effects of mulching materials and furrow irrigation methods on onion yield and water productivity under semi-arid conditions. Split plot design with three replications, in which the irrigation methods (Conventional, Fixed and Alternate Furrow) were assigned to the main plot and the three mulching materials (no mulch, wheat straw and white plastic mulch), were to the sub-plot. Results indicate that marketable onion bulb yield and water use efficiency were affected by the main effect of furrow irrigation methods and mulching materials (p< 0.05). But the interaction of irrigation methods and mulch had no significant effect on marketable onion bulb yield and water use efficiency. The conventional furrow irrigation (10081.52kg ha-1) and wheat straw mulch (12121.63 kg ha-1) resulted in the maximum marketable bulb yield. The highest water use efficiency (3.27 kg/m3) was obtained from alternate furrow irrigation method with straw mulch. This suggests that under limited irrigation water, alternate furrow irrigation along with wheat straw mulch minimize evaporation loss; maximize water productivity and sustain onion production at Amibara and similar agro-ecology and soil type.
Soil is one of the most important water storage in nature.
Water content in the soil is very significant parameter of water regime of the country which significantly depends on soil area and quality of soil. Lower acreage of soil and lower soil quality lead to less water content in the country and vice versa.
Human activities (agriculture, forest management, soil sealing) are still important factors of water regimes of land.
Mainly agriculture drives the soil water regime from positive or negative points of view.
Screening and Selection of Drought-Tolerant Groundnut Varieties Based on Yiel...Premier Publishers
Drought is the most important abiotic limitation to groundnut production in Northern Ghana. Drought, during the pod-filling stages is even more devastating. The current study was conducted to screen groundnut varieties, for drought-tolerance based on yield and other traits. Evaluation of groundnut genotypes was under two environments/water regimes; well-watered and water-stressed. ANOVA was run for Quantitative data. Means were separated by l.s.d. at 95% confidence level. Correlation analyses were performed using SPSS. Combined analysis of variance was computed for the groundnuts across water regimes. Dendrograms were generated using yield data and based on Euclidean distance. Scoring and ranking was used to assess disease incidence on a scale of 1-5. Results indicate that end-of-season drought caused pod yield reduction that varied across genotypes. The Drought Tolerance Index ranged from 0.53 (Kpanieli) to 2.40 (Agric-Manipinta). The highest yielding genotypes under water-stressed condition were Sinkara (582g/plot), Nkatie-sari (512g/plot), Ndogba (470g/plot), Chaco-pag (400g/plot) and Oboshie (381g/plot) and Chinese (local) (340g/plot). Farmers’ selected Sinkara, Ndogba, Chinese, Nkatie-sari, Agric-Manipinta and Chaco-pag based on pod yield and biomass production. Sinkara (0.8798), Sokan-donworor (0.8739), Kpach-Isah (0.8318) and Kpanieli (0.8016) recorded very high mean pod harvest index values, while Ndogba recorded the lowest (0.2252). Combined analysis of variance for pod yield among all the genotypes indicate that the groundnuts performed differently in both water regimes due to the significant interaction effect observed between water regimes and genotypes. Information generated from this study can be used to develop new groundnut varieties that combine higher yield and drought tolerant traits.
Soil Erosion by Sustainable Phytoremediation Process Using Solar IrrigationIJMERJOURNAL
ABSTRACT: Soil and land degradation is considered for slope land such as riverbank or stream bank and lands of high forced water runoff and rainfall causes severe soil erosion is the concern of this work. The major cause of runaway unprotected soil particles due to the natural reasons, thus making uneven soil plain surface scan be remedied by tree plantation or vegetation. A precision mirror-amplifier is designed for primarily sensing soil moisture and pH level to provide eventual environmental conditions needed for irrigation and fertilization for plants to grow healthy, which in turn reduces the soil erosion. Another special sensor designed and employed here that can monitor the degradation due to erosion and the system can determine the soil’s critical limits. To design the system in an IC form, VLSI design MAGIC CAD tool is used to complete. Results from PSPICE has confirmed the proper performance of the IC and proved to be very applicable in the environment controlling systems. In this paper, design methods and results are presented for a sustainable cultivation technology to prevent soil erosion at slope land
Effects of salinity stress on growth, Water use efficiency and biomass partit...Innspub Net
Future crop production is predicted to face significant challenges from salinity stress due to secondary salinization. Therefore future-proofing crop production in these conditions is an essential path towards addressing food security. We evaluated the effect of irrigation with water of 0, 4 and 8 ppt salinity on growth, biomass partitioning, WUE and chlorophyll fluorescence of Vernonia hymenolepis A.Rich as ameliorated by fertilization with three levels of NPK20:10:10. Data were analysed for variance using the General Linear Model ANOVA procedure, after positive tests for normality and homogeneity of variance. Means were separated through the Dunnett test. Pearson Correlation was done to determine relationship between variables and these were spatially projected using the Factor Analysis procedure, without rotation. Under fertilization at 8 g NPK20:10:10 per plant, growth was stimulated by salinity increase to 4 ppt (35.43cm) compared to 30.43cm for control plants. Fertilizer application significantly improved all the biomass fractions of plants irrigated with water of 4 ppt relative to the control, while root:shoot ratios were highest for unfertilized plants indicating resource re-allocation to roots for better foraging. Chlorophyll fluorescence ranged between 0.716 and 0.727 and did not differ significantly across treatments. These values indicate that all treatments were under stress, including control plants. Values of WUE and RGR indicate that fertilization of plants irrigated with water of 4ppt salinity enhances growth and Harvest Index of V. hymenolepis, in spite of the registered stress. This is significant to future food security.
Soil fertility is the backbone of agriculture systems and plays a key role in determining food quantity and quality. The intension of soil fertility management is to improve soil buffering capacity and to reduce soil degradation. Soil health is fundamental for a healthy food production. It provides essential nutrients, water, oxygen and support to the roots, all elements that favor the growth and development of plants for food production. Now the Indian population is 1.37 billion (Census India gov.in) Land area availability is 3.287 million km2. Net cultivable area is 143 million ha. Degraded land in India around 141 million ha. Per capita land availability is 0.3 ha per farmer (Indian express Nov 6,2009). Food grain supply 234.0 million tons, food grain demand 236.2 million tones (Praduman Kumar et al.,2016). In the year 2019 Global Hunger Index(GHI), India ranks 102nd out of 117 qualifying countries. With a score of 30.3, India suffers from a level of hunger that is serious (Global Hunger Index Organization). Nearly 1 billion people around the world suffer from hunger. Soil management is important, both directly and indirectly, to crop productivity, environmental sustainability, and human health (Mittal et al., 2008). To achieve future food security, the management of soils in a sustainable manner will be the challenge, through proper nutrient management and appropriate conservation practices. Such as maintain soil organic carbon, effective utilization of natural resources, use of non-monetary input like LEISA etc., will be the better option to fulfils the ever-growing population’s food and nutritional security.
The entire country was fully analysed and mapped for identifying the wastelands. Among all the states, the districts which have more than 15% area under wasteland were identified for detailed mapping. In order to assess the nature and propose of rejuvenating the wastelands, a common classification system has been adopted.
Effect of nitrogen fertilizer rates and intra-row spacing on yield and yield ...Premier Publishers
A field experiment was conducted at Gode Polytechnic College demonstration farm in 2013 under irrigation to observe the effect of six N rates (0, 46, 69, 92, 115 and 138 kg ha-1) and four intra-row spacing levels (7.5, 10 12.5 and 15 cm) on yield and yield components of onion (Allium cepa L.). The experiment was laid out according to randomized complete block design in factorial arrangement with three replications. Results of the analysis revealed that the interaction effects of N rates and intra-row spacing showed highly significant (P<0.01) effect on harvest index, fresh biomass yield, dry biomass yield, total bulb yield and marketable bulb yield. Thus, according to the result of partial Budget analysis application of 138kg N ha-1 planted at 7.5cm plant to plant distance was found the best treatment than others in relation to yield and yield components of onion under Gode condition.
Comparing the performance of a home-made bottle drip to a commercial drip sys...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
A study was conducted in which lettuce (Lactucasativa L.) was grown in a plot at the Faculty of Agriculture at Luyengo Campus of the University of Eswatini to compare three different irrigation methods on the production of marketable heads of lettuce. The performance of lettuce under a commercial drip tape was compared with a home-made bottle drip and a hand watering can as used typically by rural people in the country. The commercial drip had emitters discharging 2 liters per hour and therefore 2 liters per hour was applied with both the home-made bottle drip and the watering can during irrigation. The irrigation frequency was every after two days for all the treatments. The plot sizes were 1.5 m x 4.0 m and there were four replications per treatment. There were eighteen lettuce plants per plot. The lettuce was grown for a period of four weeks and then harvested whole. Yield parameters measured included the plant height (cm), leaf area index (LAI), root length (cm) and the fresh head mass (grams). Significant differences (P < 0.01) between treatments were obtained for fresh lettuce head mass and root length. The commercial drip treatment had largest fresh mass at 226.8 g. It was followed by bottle drip at 184.8 g. The control had the lowest yield at 165.3 g. There were no significant differences between treatments for plant height and leaf area index. It was concluded that the home-made bottle drip irrigation method could be recommended for rural people who cannot afford to buy the commercial drip system for the production of vegetables for household consumption.
Integrated Effect of Mulching Materials and Furrow Irrigation Methods on Yiel...Premier Publishers
A field experiment was conducted at Werer, Middle Awash Valley during the dry season of the 2016-17, 2017-18 and 2018-19 to investigate the effects of mulching materials and furrow irrigation methods on onion yield and water productivity under semi-arid conditions. Split plot design with three replications, in which the irrigation methods (Conventional, Fixed and Alternate Furrow) were assigned to the main plot and the three mulching materials (no mulch, wheat straw and white plastic mulch), were to the sub-plot. Results indicate that marketable onion bulb yield and water use efficiency were affected by the main effect of furrow irrigation methods and mulching materials (p< 0.05). But the interaction of irrigation methods and mulch had no significant effect on marketable onion bulb yield and water use efficiency. The conventional furrow irrigation (10081.52kg ha-1) and wheat straw mulch (12121.63 kg ha-1) resulted in the maximum marketable bulb yield. The highest water use efficiency (3.27 kg/m3) was obtained from alternate furrow irrigation method with straw mulch. This suggests that under limited irrigation water, alternate furrow irrigation along with wheat straw mulch minimize evaporation loss; maximize water productivity and sustain onion production at Amibara and similar agro-ecology and soil type.
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Microclimate Modification Using Eco-Friendly Nets & Floating Row Covers Improves Tomato Yield & Quality for Small Holder Farmers in East Africa; Gardening Guidebook for East Africa ~ Egerton University~ For more information, Please see websites below:
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Organic Edible Schoolyards & Gardening with Children =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851214 ~
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Double Food Production from your School Garden with Organic Tech =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851079 ~
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Free School Gardening Art Posters =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159 ~
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Increase Food Production with Companion Planting in your School Garden =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159 ~
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Healthy Foods Dramatically Improves Student Academic Success =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851348 ~
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City Chickens for your Organic School Garden =
http://scribd.com/doc/239850440 ~
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Huerto Ecológico, Tecnologías Sostenibles, Agricultura Organica
http://scribd.com/doc/239850233
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Simple Square Foot Gardening for Schools - Teacher Guide =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851110
Author: Norman Uphoff
Title: Agroecological Management of Soil Systems for Food, Water, Climate Resilience, and Biodiversity
Date: December 6, 2019
Presented at: The Knowledge Dialogue on the Occasion of World Soil Day
Venue: United Nations, New York
Natural resources management in dryland agriculture and importance of water m...Rajeev Tiwari
This PPT aims to provide the information about management of natural resources in dryland agriculture and the importance of water management in crop production.
Natural resources are naturally occurring substances that are considered valuable in their relatively unmodified (natural) form.
Any part of our natural materials that can be utilized to promote welfare, may be regarded as natural resources.
The management of natural resources such as land, water, soil, plants and animals with a particular focus on how management affects the quality of life for both present and future generations.
MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES FOR NATURAL RESOURCES:
1. Field survey will enable us to know the kind and amount of available natural resources. For this purpose, GIS, GPS and remote sensing could be used.
2. The available resources should be conserved and utilized efficiently.
3. Technologies used to conserve and utilize natural resources should be eco-friendly, environmentally sound and economically viable.
4. Rainwater harvesting for replenishing groundwater and renovating the traditional sources of rainwater storage.
NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN DRYLAND:
1. sustainable water management: In-situ moisture conservation, Rainwater harvesting.
2. Sustainable soil management: Erosion control, desertification control, soil health maintenance, alternate use of different land.
3. Watershed management
4. Sustainable crop management: Cropping system, nutrient management, irrigation management, weed management.
5. Livestock management
6. Sustainable use of dryland biodiversity: Grassland improvement and management, Dryland trees and management, plants of medicinal and industrial values.
Spearmint (Mentha spicata L.) Response to Deficit Irrigationpaperpublications3
Abstract: An experiment was conducted with the objective to identify the level of deficit irrigation which allows achieving optimal yield and investigate the effect of deficit irrigation practice on spearmint (Mentha Spicata L.) yield and yield components. The experiment was conducted at Koka research station of Wondo Genet Agricultural Research Center, Ethiopia latitude 8O26’, longitude 39O2’ and altitude 1602masl for two years (2011/2012 and 2012/2013 dry season). Nine treatments three level of irrigation water amount percentage based on evapo-transpiration of the crop (ETc) (100%ETc, 75%ETc and 50%ETc) and three types of furrow irrigation water application method (alternate furrow, fixed furrow and conventional furrow) were used in randomized completely block design (RCBD) with three replications. The pooled mean of two year data showed different level of deficit irrigation had a significant effect (p<0.05)><0.01) variation among treatments due to deficit irrigation on dry biomass yield per hectare, dry leaf yield per hectare, essential oil yield per hectare and water use efficiency. However, different deficit irrigation level had no significant influence on wet harvesting index. The highest fresh biomass, dry biomass, fresh leaf, dry leaf and essential oil yield per harvesting cycle of 12093kg/ha, 3746kg/ha, 8133kg/ha, 2441.1kg/ha and 37.0kg/ha respectively was obtained due to 100%ETc with conventional furrow application method. Moreover, the highest water use efficiency of 16.3x10-3kg/m3 was achieved due to deficit irrigation to 50%ETc with alternate furrow irrigation water application method. The study showed that the best treatment is deficit irrigation to 50%ETc with conventional furrow application method which had no significant variation with treatments that showed higher yields of spearmint including water use efficiency.
Treatment Performance of Domestic Wastewater in a Tropical Constructed Wetlan...Oswar Mungkasa
prepared by Jonah S Butler* *Fulbright Scholar, DILG-GTZ Affiliate in Philippines: For Environmental Science Study on Wastewater Treatment. (Email: Jonahsbutler@gmail.com) for Urban Environments in Asia, 25-28 May 2011, Manila, Philippines. organized by International Water Association (IWA).
Mulching and Tied Ridges as A Moisture Conservation Strategy to Improve the Y...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
Abstract— An experiment was conducted to determine the effectiveness of soil moisture conservation techniques on improving sorghum yield in a semi-arid rural area of Swaziland. The four treatments were; planting sorghum on flat soil (F), planting on tied ridges (T), planting on mulched soil (M) and planting on a combination of tied ridges and mulch (TM). Sorghum planted on flat soil was used as control in the experiment. The sorghum variety 8625 was planted. The experiment was complete randomized design and each treatment was replicated three times. The parameters measured were; grain yield, total biomass yield, soil moisture suction and grain moisture content at harvest. The grain yields from all the other treatments (mulching, tied ridges, tied ridges with mulching) were higher than those of the control (flat planting). The grain yield from TM was the highest at an average of 10.002 tons/ha. It was significantly different from that of T and F (p<0.05).>0.05). The results showed that a combination of tied ridges and mulching provided superior results in terms of grain yield, dry matter yield and soil moisture suction. Mulching and tied ridges also yielded results that were better than the control (F).
Spearmint (Mentha spicata L.) Response to Deficit Irrigationpaperpublications3
Abstract: An experiment was conducted with the objective to identify the level of deficit irrigation which allows achieving optimal yield and investigate the effect of deficit irrigation practice on spearmint (Mentha Spicata L.) yield and yield components. The experiment was conducted at Koka research station of Wondo Genet Agricultural Research Center, Ethiopia latitude 8O26’, longitude 39O2’ and altitude 1602masl for two years (2011/2012 and 2012/2013 dry season). Nine treatments three level of irrigation water amount percentage based on evapo-transpiration of the crop (ETc) (100%ETc, 75%ETc and 50%ETc) and three types of furrow irrigation water application method (alternate furrow, fixed furrow and conventional furrow) were used in randomized completely block design (RCBD) with three replications. The pooled mean of two year data showed different level of deficit irrigation had a significant effect (p<0.05)><0.01) variation among treatments due to deficit irrigation on dry biomass yield per hectare, dry leaf yield per hectare, essential oil yield per hectare and water use efficiency. However, different deficit irrigation level had no significant influence on wet harvesting index. The highest fresh biomass, dry biomass, fresh leaf, dry leaf and essential oil yield per harvesting cycle of 12093kg/ha, 3746kg/ha, 8133kg/ha, 2441.1kg/ha and 37.0kg/ha respectively was obtained due to 100%ETc with conventional furrow application method. Moreover, the highest water use efficiency of 16.3x10-3kg/m3 was achieved due to deficit irrigation to 50%ETc with alternate furrow irrigation water application method. The study showed that the best treatment is deficit irrigation to 50%ETc with conventional furrow application method which had no significant variation with treatments that showed higher yields of spearmint including water use efficiency.
Keywords: Alternate furrow, conventional furrow, deficit irrigation, fixed furrow, spearmint.
Irrigation experiments of cocoa tend to concentrate on yield of matured cocoa trees compared to field establishment of young seedlings. Seedling survival leading to optimum population density are fundamental to obtaining maximum yield of crops. The aim of this experiment was to determine the effect of mulching and irrigation on survival of hybrid cocoa clone raised in three different growing media during the establishment phase. The experimental design was a 2 x 2 x 3 factorial arranged in a split-split plot design, with irrigation as the main plot factor, mulching as the subplot factor and growing media as the sub-sub plot factor with three replications. Cocoa pod husk (CPH) was used as the mulching material and each plant received 5kg at a rate of 5.6 t/ha. Irrigation was done daily by applying 4L of water except when it rains. Data was collected on soil moisture, plant height, leaf number, stem girth and plant survival. Results indicated that irrigation and mulching significantly (P<0.01) enhanced soil moisture. Cocoa seedlings raised in topsoil, mulched and irrigated significantly (P<0.05) increased survival rate (94.5%) compared to seedlings raised in soil without irrigation and no mulching (47.1%). Similarly, the survival rate of seedlings raised in growing media M2, mulched and irrigated (93.0%) was significantly (P<0.05) higher than similar seedlings without irrigation (73.4%). However, the survival rate of seedlings raised in M3 without mulching but irrigated was significantly (<0.05) higher 92.1% compared to seedlings raised in M3 mulched and irrigated 67.1%. Irrigation is very important in ensuring high survival rate during early field establishment. Mulching with cocoa pod husk without irrigation did not improve cocoa seedling survival.
Journal of Plant Chemistry and Ecophysiology (Plant Chem Ecophysiol) is an international journal devoted to Phytochemistry, and Morphology, Physiology and Ecology of plants. The journal is open for manuscripts in a broad sense, including relevant manuscripts from ecology via physiological, biochemical and molecular investigations to physiological observations in plant sociology. Researches on the impact of biotic and abiotic factors on plant functioning and adaptation at various levels, ranging from the molecular, cellular, and tissular to a whole-plant level are welcome. Studies on plant-based chemicals, including their biosynthesis, metabolism, and biological activities/functions in plants as well as their utility in medicines, foods, pesticides, and cleaning agents are also welcome. We encourage the submission of papers that use cross-disciplinary concepts and methodologies. All contributions appear in the English language.
Austin Publishing Group accepts original research articles, review articles, case studies, commentaries, discussions, technical notes, editorials, forums, short communication, and book reviews on all the aspects of Plant Chemistry and Ecophysiology.
Austin Publishing Group is a successful host of more than hundred peer reviewed, open access journals in various fields of science and medicine with intent to bridge the gap between academia and research access.
Evapotranspiration partitioning components in an irrigated winter wheat field...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
Abstract— The arid and semi-arid regions constitute roughly one third of the total earth’s surface. In these regions water scarcity is one of the main limiting factors for economic growth. The impact of such water scarcity is amplified by inefficient irrigation practices, especially since about 85% of available water is used for irrigation in these regions. Therefore, a sound and efficient irrigation practice is an important step for achieving sustainable management of water resources in these regions. In this regard, a better understanding of the water balance is essential to explore water-saving techniques. In the context CRP project, experimental setups were conceived to monitor seasonal water consumption on the wheat crop irrigated by flood irrigation in Sidi Rahal station (middle of morocco. The partitioning of evapotranspiration compounds shows that transpiration dominates the evaporation about 68 % for three days (22, 23 and 24 February 2012). In addition the wheat absorbs the soil water from 10 cm to 20 cm (90%) at this growing stage according to the multiple-source mass balance assessment.
UNDERSTANDING WHAT GREEN WASHING IS!.pdfJulietMogola
Many companies today use green washing to lure the public into thinking they are conserving the environment but in real sense they are doing more harm. There have been such several cases from very big companies here in Kenya and also globally. This ranges from various sectors from manufacturing and goes to consumer products. Educating people on greenwashing will enable people to make better choices based on their analysis and not on what they see on marketing sites.
Natural farming @ Dr. Siddhartha S. Jena.pptxsidjena70
A brief about organic farming/ Natural farming/ Zero budget natural farming/ Subash Palekar Natural farming which keeps us and environment safe and healthy. Next gen Agricultural practices of chemical free farming.
Willie Nelson Net Worth: A Journey Through Music, Movies, and Business Venturesgreendigital
Willie Nelson is a name that resonates within the world of music and entertainment. Known for his unique voice, and masterful guitar skills. and an extraordinary career spanning several decades. Nelson has become a legend in the country music scene. But, his influence extends far beyond the realm of music. with ventures in acting, writing, activism, and business. This comprehensive article delves into Willie Nelson net worth. exploring the various facets of his career that have contributed to his large fortune.
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Introduction
Willie Nelson net worth is a testament to his enduring influence and success in many fields. Born on April 29, 1933, in Abbott, Texas. Nelson's journey from a humble beginning to becoming one of the most iconic figures in American music is nothing short of inspirational. His net worth, which estimated to be around $25 million as of 2024. reflects a career that is as diverse as it is prolific.
Early Life and Musical Beginnings
Humble Origins
Willie Hugh Nelson was born during the Great Depression. a time of significant economic hardship in the United States. Raised by his grandparents. Nelson found solace and inspiration in music from an early age. His grandmother taught him to play the guitar. setting the stage for what would become an illustrious career.
First Steps in Music
Nelson's initial foray into the music industry was fraught with challenges. He moved to Nashville, Tennessee, to pursue his dreams, but success did not come . Working as a songwriter, Nelson penned hits for other artists. which helped him gain a foothold in the competitive music scene. His songwriting skills contributed to his early earnings. laying the foundation for his net worth.
Rise to Stardom
Breakthrough Albums
The 1970s marked a turning point in Willie Nelson's career. His albums "Shotgun Willie" (1973), "Red Headed Stranger" (1975). and "Stardust" (1978) received critical acclaim and commercial success. These albums not only solidified his position in the country music genre. but also introduced his music to a broader audience. The success of these albums played a crucial role in boosting Willie Nelson net worth.
Iconic Songs
Willie Nelson net worth is also attributed to his extensive catalog of hit songs. Tracks like "Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain," "On the Road Again," and "Always on My Mind" have become timeless classics. These songs have not only earned Nelson large royalties but have also ensured his continued relevance in the music industry.
Acting and Film Career
Hollywood Ventures
In addition to his music career, Willie Nelson has also made a mark in Hollywood. His distinctive personality and on-screen presence have landed him roles in several films and television shows. Notable appearances include roles in "The Electric Horseman" (1979), "Honeysuckle Rose" (1980), and "Barbarosa" (1982). These acting gigs have added a significant amount to Willie Nelson net worth.
Television Appearances
Nelson's char
"Understanding the Carbon Cycle: Processes, Human Impacts, and Strategies for...MMariSelvam4
The carbon cycle is a critical component of Earth's environmental system, governing the movement and transformation of carbon through various reservoirs, including the atmosphere, oceans, soil, and living organisms. This complex cycle involves several key processes such as photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, and carbon sequestration, each contributing to the regulation of carbon levels on the planet.
Human activities, particularly fossil fuel combustion and deforestation, have significantly altered the natural carbon cycle, leading to increased atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and driving climate change. Understanding the intricacies of the carbon cycle is essential for assessing the impacts of these changes and developing effective mitigation strategies.
By studying the carbon cycle, scientists can identify carbon sources and sinks, measure carbon fluxes, and predict future trends. This knowledge is crucial for crafting policies aimed at reducing carbon emissions, enhancing carbon storage, and promoting sustainable practices. The carbon cycle's interplay with climate systems, ecosystems, and human activities underscores its importance in maintaining a stable and healthy planet.
In-depth exploration of the carbon cycle reveals the delicate balance required to sustain life and the urgent need to address anthropogenic influences. Through research, education, and policy, we can work towards restoring equilibrium in the carbon cycle and ensuring a sustainable future for generations to come.
Characterization and the Kinetics of drying at the drying oven and with micro...Open Access Research Paper
The objective of this work is to contribute to valorization de Nephelium lappaceum by the characterization of kinetics of drying of seeds of Nephelium lappaceum. The seeds were dehydrated until a constant mass respectively in a drying oven and a microwawe oven. The temperatures and the powers of drying are respectively: 50, 60 and 70°C and 140, 280 and 420 W. The results show that the curves of drying of seeds of Nephelium lappaceum do not present a phase of constant kinetics. The coefficients of diffusion vary between 2.09.10-8 to 2.98. 10-8m-2/s in the interval of 50°C at 70°C and between 4.83×10-07 at 9.04×10-07 m-8/s for the powers going of 140 W with 420 W the relation between Arrhenius and a value of energy of activation of 16.49 kJ. mol-1 expressed the effect of the temperature on effective diffusivity.
The Effect of Mulching on Soil Moisture Retention and Yield of Lettuce (Lactuca Sativa L.)
1. International Journal of Environmental & Agriculture Research (IJOEAR) ISSN:[2454-1850] [Vol-5, Issue-9, September- 2019]
Page | 47
The Effect of Mulching on Soil Moisture Retention and Yield of
Lettuce (Lactuca Sativa L.)
K. T. Mkhabela1
, M.V. Dlamini2
, A.M. Manyatsi3*
Faculty of Agriculture, University of Eswatini, Luyengo Campus, M206, Eswatini
Abstract— An experiment was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of different mulching materials on soil moisture
retention and yield of lettuce at the greenhouse located at Luyengo campus of the University of Eswatini during the months
of January and February, 2019. The treatments consisted of grass mulch (GM), Plastic mulch (PM), leaf debris mulch (LM),
and no mulch (NM) which was used as a control. Each of the treatments had four replications. The organic mulch was
applied at a thickness of 10 cm, and the plots for experiments were randomly selected. Each plant received 600 cm3
of water
every 3 days using a homemade drip irrigation system (equivalent to 6 mm per irrigation circle). Data on soil moisture
content was collected using the gravimetric method every 3 days (before irrigation).The growth parameters of the lettuce
plants that were collected weekly were plant height, leaf number and leaf area. Both wet weight and dry weight yield were
determined for each plot at the end of the experiment (six weeks after planting). Data collected was coded and entered into
SPSS computer software. Data analysis was conducted using the analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the least significance
difference (LSD) test to determine if means were significantly different. The results showed that GM treatment had high mean
moisture retention at 9.3%. It was followed by PM and LM at 8.9%. The lowest moisture retention was realized from the
control (No mulching) at 7.9%.The differences in mean moisture retention was significant between NM and NM (p<0.05).
The same pattern was observed for the growth parameters, where GN had highest values and the control had the lowest
values. The wet mass yield was highest for GM, at 164.7 g. The yield from LM was 149.3 g. It was followed by PM at 141.3
g. The lowest yield was obtained from the control at 108 g. The difference in mean yields for GM and NM were significant
(p<0.05). They were not significantly different for all the other treatments (p>0.050. It was concluded from the experiment
that grass mulching resulted in improved moisture retention and high yields.
Keywords— Keywords-Drippers, irrigation, moisture, mulching, yield.
I. INTRODUCTION
Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) is one of the most commonly used as salad vegetable. It belongs to the daisy family, Asteraceae.
Lettuce probably originated from Asia, where it was grown for centuries and its early forms were used in Egypt around
4500BC [1]. Lettuce is a cool season crop grown for its tender head and leaves, but sometimes for its stem and seeds. It is
rich in vitamins A and C and minerals like calcium. Lettuce is the dominant cultivated salad vegetable, which is
commercialized worldwide. It is the most popular salad vegetable with the highest consumption rate and economic
importance throughout the world). Farmers need to be educated for its production technology including judicious water
management [2]. Water use efficiency is crucial and should be promoted in agricultural production [3]. A way of doing this
is through mulching, which involves covering of the soil surface with crop residue (s) or other material such as paper or
polyethylene film. Straw mulch helps to retain soil moisture, reduce temperature, conserves soil, control weeds and increase
soil fertility. Mulches increase the soil moisture in the root zone and significantly decrease soil temperature. This provides a
stable environment for seedling establishment and growth than soil that is not mulched. In addition, mulches increase the
infiltration and storage of water in the soil and improve structure and macro-porosity of the soil along with reducing runoff
and evaporation losses [4]. Water is essential for the sustenance of all forms of life. In the Kingdom of Eswatini, water
utilization is expected to stimulate the economic development of the country through agricultural production. In the past few
years, water availability has been scarce resulting to uneven water distribution across the country with high costs and worse,
some water source went dry due to drought. This predicament has created a drive to conserve water in the country.
Improving water efficiency is an ongoing goal in agricultural production, especially in area where water sources are limited
and regulated. Farmers are adopting new strategies of conserving the little water they have for their production, especially
vegetable production. That’s when the need of other possible ways of water conservation through the use of mulch was
considered, but there is still uncertainty of which mulch material is more effective, hence this study. Mulching benefits the
soil in many ways which subsequently enhance the growth of the plants in that particular soil. Mulching offers tremendous
potential for increased crop production through its marked effects on the soil environment which increase crop growth and
yield [5]. Mulches are beneficial in soil and water conservation, modification of soil temperature and the temperature just
2. International Journal of Environmental & Agriculture Research (IJOEAR) ISSN:[2454-1850] [Vol-5, Issue-9, September- 2019]
Page | 48
above the ground, preserving and improving soil physical and chemical properties, suppressing weed growth and enhancing
biological activities in the soil. Mulching improves the soil moisture regime by reducing losses caused by surface run-off and
evaporation. It insulates and protects soil from drying and hard-baking effects caused by evaporation of water from soil
exposed to hot sun and winds. Mulched soils absorb water faster than soils of the same type without mulch. Under mulch, the
soil moisture is conserved because of reduced evaporation, improved infiltration rate, and the suppression of unnecessary
plant growth [6].
The build-up of a large and active soil microbial biomass is critically important for sustaining the productivity of soils in
organic farming systems [7]. Soil microbes, the living part of soil organic matter, function as a transient nutrient sink and are
responsible for releasing nutrients from organic matter for use by plants. Mulching enhances microbial activities in the soil,
which is essential in nutrient recycling [8].
The effect of mulch on crop yield is an integrated effect of many factors and it is difficult to attribute the yield increments to
any one variable on its own [9]. Crops perform well when there is adequate soil moisture, nutrients and or optimum
temperature. The presence of mulch enhances all the conditions mentioned above but mulch alone cannot provide adequate
nutrients that the crop requires for development. The objective of this study was to determine the effect of mulching on soil
moisture retention and the yield of lettuce.
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1. Description of study area and research design
The experiment was conducted at the greenhouse located at Luyengo campus of the University of Eswatini. Luyengo is
located in the Middleveld of Eswatini at 26.683o
S and 31.20o
E with altitude of 733 m above sea level. It has an average
annual rainfall that ranges from 850 to 1000 mm. The soils are classified under the Malkerns soil series (Oxisols), which are
dark loam to sandy loams [10]. The experiment was Complete Randomized Block Design with four treatments that were
replicated four times. The treatments were: grass mulch (GM), plastic mulch (PM), leaf debris mulch (LDM), and no mulch
(NM) as a control.
2.2. Land preparation and planting, and irrigation
Land was cultivated uniformly using a hand fork to break clods and the soil was loosened. A fine tilth was prepared on the
plots using a hand rake before planting seedlings. Seedlings were obtained from Vickery Nursery, a local commercial
nursery. One seedling was planted by hand in each hole, with seven lettuce seedlings being planted per replication. They
were planted at 30 cm apart within rows and 40cm between each treatment. The different organic mulching materials were
applied at a thickness of 10 cm seven days after planting the seedlings. Weeding was done using a hand hoe whenever
necessary. The crops were monitored on a daily basis to observe and treat any symptoms of pest and disease attack, there
were none observed.
The plants were irrigated using a homemade drip irrigation system. It was a low cost drip irrigation system which is a gravity
fed system. This irrigation method involves the delivery of water through a pipe distribution network consisting of a main
pipe that delivers water to lateral pipes under low pressure and emission through small outlets (emitters or drippers) into the
soil surrounding the plant. The components of this drip irrigation kit include the water storage tank of 210 liters capacity, a
gate valve that controls the movement of water entering the system, a backflow preventer, a filter, a tubing adapter that
connects the drip tubing with the filter, and the main pipe that delivers water to the laterals of the system. Each plant received
600 cm3
in every irrigation cycle which lasted for 1.2 hours. This was equivalent to 6 mm of water per irrigation cycle.
2.3. Data collection and analysis
The parameters that were measured every week during the study were leaf number, leaf width, and leaf length of the plant.
The parameters were collected from all the plants in each replication. The Leaf Area Index (LAI) was calculated using
equation 1.
𝐿𝐴𝐼 = 𝑌 × 𝑁 × 𝐴𝐿 × 𝐴𝑃−1
(1)
Where;
Y- is the population of the plants per plot
N- is the average number of leaves per plant
3. International Journal of Environmental & Agriculture Research (IJOEAR) ISSN:[2454-1850] [Vol-5, Issue-9, September- 2019]
Page | 49
AL- is the average area per leaf (cm2
)
AP- is the area of the plot (cm2
)
The leaf area was calculated using equation 2.
𝐿𝐴 = 𝐿 × 𝑊 × 0.7 (2)
Where;
LA- is the leaf area (cm2
)
L- is the leaf length (cm)
W- is the leaf width (cm)
0.7- is the correction factor
The soil moisture content for each treatment was determined every three days using the gravimetric method which involves
collecting a sample of wet soil, weighing it before and after oven drying it at 105o
C for at least 48 hours. The soil samples
were collected using a 98 cm3
cylindrical ring before irrigation (irrigation cycle was 3 days) from each treatment, weighed,
oven dried at 105o
C for 48 hours, then weighed again to get the dry mass. The amount of water lost was calculated as a
percentage of the mass of the dried soil as expressed in equation 3.
% 𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 =
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔 𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑔 −𝑊𝑖𝑒𝑔 𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 (𝑔)
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔 𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
× 100% (3)
One plant was harvested by cutting it from the base from plot at maturity (six weeks after planted). The harvested plants were
weighted to determine wet mass. There after they were oven dried for 48 hours at 1050
C, and weighted to determine dry
mass.
Data were entered into SPSS computer software. The Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and the least significant difference
(LSD) were used to determine if means were significantly different.
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The results showed that there were some variations in soil moisture retention under the different mulch materials (Table 1).
Grass mulch treatment had highest soil moisture retention (at 9.3%), followed by both plastic mulch and leaf debris mulch, at
8.9%. The control had the lowest soil moisture retention at 7.9%. The difference in soil moisture retention was significant for
the grass mulch and control (p<0.05). Organic mulch reduces evaporation of soil moisture and thus improving soil moisture
retention [11].
TABLE 1
RESULTS SHOWING MEAN VALUES FOR PARAMETERS
Treatment
Parameters*
Moisture
retention (%)
Mean plant
height
Mean leaf
number
Leaf area
index
Mean wet
mass
Mean dry
mass
Control 7.9a
15.2b
10 0.37c
108d
6.3e
Grass mulch 9.3a
21.7b
13 0.77c
164.7d
8.7e
Plastic mulch 8.9 16.0 10 0.45 141.3 7.4
Leaf debris
mulch
8.9 18.2 11 0.47 149.3 8
*
Parameters on same column with same symbol indicate that their means were significantly different.
Grass mulched treatment recorded the highest mean plant height of 21.7 cm after the 6-week growing period. It was followed
by Leaf debris mulch (LM) with a mean height of 18.2 cm and the Plastic mulch (PM) with a mean plant height of 16 cm.
The Control treatment (NM) had the lowest mean plant height of 15.2 cm (Table 1). The mean plant height for Control and
Grass mulch were significantly different (p<0.05). They were not significantly different for all the other treatments (p>0.05).
4. International Journal of Environmental & Agriculture Research (IJOEAR) ISSN:[2454-1850] [Vol-5, Issue-9, September- 2019]
Page | 50
Leaf area index is a reference tool for crop growth as leaves are the most important structure for photosynthesis [12]. The
mean LAI for GM was the highest at 0.77. It was followed by LM and PM) which recorded 0.47 and 0.45 respectively. The
Control (NM) had the lowest LAI at 0.37. The LAI values were significantly differently for NM and GM (p <0.05), and not
significantly different for all the other treatments. GM treatment had the highest mean number of leaves, at 13. It was
followed by LM with mean number of leaves at 11. The mean number of leaves for PM and NM were 10. The mean number
of leaves were not significantly different for all the treatments (p>0.05).
The results for yield were presented in terms of the mean wet mass and mean dry mass (Table 1). The mean yield per plant
for GM was the highest (at 164.7 g wet mass and 8.7 g dry mass). The control (NM) had the lowest mean mass (at 108 g wet
mass and 6.3 g dry mass). Like most other parameters, the difference in mean yield was significant for GM and NM
(p<0.05). They were not significant for all the other treatments (p>0.05). Mulching improves nutrition absorption; weed
control and temperature adjustment, leading to improved growth and yield [13].
IV. CONCLUSION
Mulching of the soil resulted in improved growth and yield of lettuce. The performance of lettuce under all the three
treatments (GM, PM and LM) was higher than of the control (NM). The differences in mean values for all the parameters
(except for mean leaf numbers) were significant for GM and NM. They were not significant for all the other treatments.
Based on the findings of this study, it is concluded that mulching has a positive effect on soil moisture retention and yield of
lettuce. Grass mulch should be adopted as a moisture conservation measure that would result in significant increase in the
yield of lettuce.
REFERENCES
[1] Directorate Agricultural Information Services. Lettuce production guidelines-Department of Agricultural Forestry and Fisheries.
www.nda.agric.za, 2018.
[2] Abu-Rayyan, B.H. Kharawish, and K. Allsmail. “Nitrate content in lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) heads in relation to plant spacing,
nitrogen form and irrigation level”, in Journal of Science and Food Agriculture, Vol. 84, pp.931-936, 2004.
[3] P. W. Unger. Role of mulching in dryland agriculture (In): U.S Gupta (e.d) Production and improvement of crops for dry lands.
Oxford and IBH Publishing New Delhi, 1995.
[4] G. E. Osuiji. “Tillage and mulching effect on seed zone soil environment and cowpea seedling growth in humid tropics”, in Soil Use
and Management, Vol. 6 (3), pp.152-156, 2007.
[5] J. W. Davies. “Mulching effects on plant climate and yield”, in World Meteorological Office–Technical note No. 136, United
Kingdom, 1975
[6] A. K. Mohammad, S. Masateru, A. K. Mohammad and N. Kimihito. “Mulching type-induced soil moisture and temperature regimes
and water use efficiency of soybean under rain-fed condition in central Japan”, in International Soil and Water Conservation
Research, Vol 5 (4), pp. 302-308, 2017.
[7] T. Cong, B.R. Jean, and H. Shuijin H. Soil microbial biomass and activity in organic tomato farming systems: Effects of organic
inputs and straw mulching, in Soil Biology and Biochemistry, Vol. 38 (2), pp. 247-255, 2006.
[8] R. Vishalini1, D. Rajakumar and M. Gomath. “Impact of Organic Mulches and Intercropping on Microbial Population and Enzyme
Activities in Irrigated Finger Millet (Eleusine coracana L”, in International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences,
Vol. 8 (6), pp. 298-305, 2019.
[9] E. G. Ken, W. Ernst, C. Marc and T. Pablo. “Conservation agriculture and smallholder farming in Africa: The heretics’ view”, in
Field Crops Research Journal, Vol 114, pp. 23–34, 2009.
[10] G. Murdoch. “Soils and Land Capability in Swaziland”. Swaziland Ministry of Agriculture. Mbabane, Swaziland, 1970.
[11] J.R. R. Hernandez, P.J. Navarro and L.I. Gomez. “Evaluation of plant waste used as mulch on soil retention" DOI:
10.3232/SJSS.2016.V6.N2.05
[12] P. Pelil, P. Biradar, A.U. Bhagawathi and I.S. Hejjigar. “Area Index of horticulture crops and its importance”, in International Journal
of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, Vol. 7(4), pp. 505-513, 2018.
[13] Khazael, R. Salehi, A. Kashi and S.M. Mirjalili, “Improvement of lettuce growth and yield with spacing, mulching and organic
fertilizer”, in International Journal of Agriculture and Crop Sciences, Vol. 6(16), pp. 1137-1143, 2018.