Textiles history, properties and performance and applications

CHEMISTRY RESEARCH AND APPLICATIONS
TEXTILES
HISTORY, PROPERTIES AND
PERFORMANCE AND APPLICATIONS
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TEXTILES
HISTORY, PROPERTIES AND
PERFORMANCE AND APPLICATIONS
MD. IBRAHIM H. MONDAL
EDITOR
New York

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CONTENTS
Preface vii
Contributor Contact Details ix
Andrej Javoršek, Cesar Pulgarin, Eva Bou-Belda,
Gordana S. Ušćumlić, Ignacio Montava, Jaime Gisbert
and Sami Rtimi
Chapter 1 An Exploration of Vintage Fashion Retailing 1
Julie McColl, Catherine Canning, Louise McBride,
Karina Nobbs and Linda Shearer
Chapter 2 Developing Sustainable Design on Denim Ready-Made Apparels
by Stone and Enzymatic Washing 19
Md. Ibrahim H. Mondal and Md. Mashiur Rahman Khan
Chapter 3 Digital Textile Printing Using Color Management 53
Dejana Javoršek, Primož Weingerl and Marica Starešinič
Chapter 4 Inkjet Printed Photo-Responsive Textiles for Conventional
and High-Tech Applications 81
Shah M. Reduwan Billah
Chapter 5 Synthesis and Grafting of Cellulose Derivatives from
Cellulosic Wastes of the Textile Industry 123
Md. Ibrahim H. Mondal and A. B. M. Fakrul Alam
Chapter 6 History, Synthesis and Properties of Azo Pyridone Dyes 157
Dušan Ž. Mijin, Gordana S. Ušćumlić and Nataša V. Valentić
Chapter 7 Smart Textiles and the Effective Uses of Photochromic,
Thermochromic, Ionochromic and Electrochromic
Molecular Switches 187
Chapter 8 Smart Textiles 239
Ali Akbar Merati
Chapter 9 Overview of Textiles Excavated in Greece 259
Christina Margariti, Stavroula Moraitou and Maria Retsa

Contentsvi
Chapter 10 Innovative Ag-Textiles Prepared by Colloidal, Conventional
Sputtering and HIPIMS Including Fast Bacterial Inactivation:
Critical Issues 277
Sami Rtimi, Cesar Pulgarin, Rosendo Sanjines and John Kiwi
Chapter 11 Fungal Deterioration of Aged Textiles 315
Katja Kavkler, Nina Gunde-Cimerman, Polona Zalar
and Andrej Demšar
Chapter 12 Durability of Functionalized Textiles by Microcapsules 343
Lucia Capablanca, Pablo Monllor, Pablo Díaz
and Maria Ángeles Bonet
Chapter 13 New Approaches and Applications on Cellulosic
Fabric Crosslinking 355
Eva Bou-Belda, Maria Ángeles Bonet, Pablo Monllor,
Pablo Díaz, Ignacio Montava and Jaime Gisbert
Chapter 14 Wrinkle Resistant and Comfort Finishing of Cotton Textiles 367
Vahid Ameri Dehabadi and Hans-Jürgen Buschmann
Chapter 15 Evaluation of Physical and Thermal Comfort Properties of
Copper/Alginate Treated Wool Fabrics by Using Ultrasonic Energy 383
Muhammet Uzun
Chapter 16 Hemp Fibers: Old Fibers - New Applications 399
Mirjana Kostic, Marija Vukcevic, Biljana Pejic
and Ana Kalijadis
Chapter 17 Textiles Using Electronic Applications 447
Marica Starešinič, Andrej Javoršek and Dejana Javoršek
Chapter 18 Textiles for Cardiac Care 465
Narayanan Gokarneshan, Palaniappan P. Gopalakrishnan,
Venkatachalam Rajendran and Dharmarajan Anita Rachel
Chapter 19 Effect of Clothing Materials on Thermoregulatory Responses
of the Human Body 483
P. Kandha Vadivu
Chapter 20 Designing of Jute–Based Thermal Insulating Materials
and Their Properties 499
Sanjoy Debnath
Chapter 21 Effects of Ring Flange Type, Traveler Weight and Coating on
Cotton Yarn Properties 519
Muhammet Uzun and Ismail Usta
Chapter 22 Optical Fiber Examination by Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy 531
Andrea Ehrmann
Index 547

PREFACE
This book reveals the expanding opportunity of textiles in a wide range of industrial
applications. No longer limited to apparels and home furnishings, textiles are being used in
many sciences and technologies, such as clothing and fashionable materials, smart textiles,
technical textiles, medical textiles, agro-textiles, geo-textiles, electronics, photonics,
intelligent sensors, etc.
This book is intended for all those who are interested and engaged in the latest
developments in the field of textiles, especially chemists, engineers, technologists, application
technicians and colorists of the textile industry, technical colleges and universities.
Textiles are essential and one of the most important classes of materials used by all
people since ancient time. Despite textiles having been around and in use for so long,
advances and improvements continue to be made. This book contains 22 invited contributions
written by leading experts in the field of textiles. Each contribution presents an updated
science and technological advances that have happened during this period and are fully
discussed. The first chapter discusses the present and future prospects of vintage fashion
clothing, i.e., an old fashion clothing and its retailing. Chapter 2 searches for the dynamic best
method for producing specific washing effects and designs on denim ready-made apparels.
The chapters 3 and 4 present a discussion on color management application in the field of
digital printing onto textile substrates, and inject printed photo-responsive textiles used in
fashion and design, self indicating security alert systems, anti-counterfeit and brand
protection. In chapter 5 and 6, an attempt has been made to cover the most up-to-date
information regarding synthesis, and application of cellulose derivatives and azo dyes on
textiles. Smart textiles incorporated with different functionalities have many uses in a variety
of fields, some of them are widely used in the fields of biomedical or healthcare applications.
The smart textiles and its multi-disciplinary applications have been well discussed in chapters
7 and 8. In chapters 9, 10 and 11, preservation of textile objects in different environments like
home, stores, museums etc. have been discussed. These chapters also discussed how to
protect textiles from bacterial and fungal deterioration. An elaborative discussion has been
made in Chapters 12, 13, 14, 15 and 16 on the new applications of textile materials through
modification by physico-chemical methods. The modification has been done to obtain
durable, comfort, sustainable and environment friendly finished products using various
organic and inorganic chemicals for much better performance. Use of micro-capsulation
techniques to modify textiles offers extra-properties, e.g., durable fragrances, skin softeners to
textiles. Electronic applications of textiles have been discussed in chapter 17. Textiles, from

Md. Ibrahim H. Mondalviii
fibers to fabric, with integrated special electronics are more and more used as special
materials in newly developed smart clothing. The chapter 18 specifically focuses on the
technological advances with regard to development of textiles for cardiology purpose, i.e.,
cardiac care. The thermoregulatory process of human body, the thermal comfort properties of
fabrics and the effect of clothing material on the thermoregulatory process of human body in
different weather conditions has been discussed in Chapter 19. In chapter 20, effort has been
made on diversification of jute specifically, development of jute-based materials for thermal
insulating applications. The main aim of chapter 21 is to utilize the ring flanges and travellers
of ring spinning, which is the most effective staple yarn production process, for the yarn
quality in terms of hairiness, twist, breaking strength and irregularity. The last chapter 22
gives an introduction into the techniques of confocal laser spinning microscopy, and depicts
optical differences between several textile fibers, enabling a non-destructive examination of
natural and chemical fibers.
I am very much grateful to all the specialized contributing authors of this book. My
special appreciation is also extended to Ms. Carra Feagaiga of Nova Science Publishers, Inc.,
for her good collaboration, support and numerous discussions throughout the project for this
book.
I wish thank to my colleagues Professor C. M. Mustafa, Professor F. I. Farouqui, and
Professor M. A. Sayeed for their constant support and encouragement. I also thank my
graduate students, Dr. Md. Mashiur Rahman Khan, Md. Raihan Sharif, Md. Saifur Rahman
and Md. Tariqul Islam for their help during editing this book. Lastly I am thankful to
Khadijatul Qubra and Ishrat Rafia for their constant encouragement, understanding and
support.
Any constructive suggestions and comments are therefore welcome for future revisions
and corrections.
Department of Applied Chemistry & Chemical Engineering,
Rajshahi University, Bangladesh
November 2013
Professor Md. Ibrahim H. Mondal

CONTRIBUTOR CONTACT DETAILS
A. B. M. Fakrul Alam
Polymer and Textiles Research Lab, Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical
Engineering, University of Rajshahi, Bangladesh
Ali Akbar Merati
Advanced Textile Materials and Technology Research Institute (ATMT), Amirkabir
University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
E-mail: merati@aut.ac.ir
Ana Kalijadis
Laboratory of Physics, Vinca Institute of Nuclear Sciences, University of Belgrade, Mike
Petrovica Alasa 12-14, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
Andrea Ehrmann
Niederrhein University of Applied Sciences, Faculty of Textile and Clothing Technology,
Webschulstr. 31, 41065 Moenchengladbach, Germany
E-mail: andrea-ehrmann@gmx.de
Andrej Demšar
Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana,
Slovenia
Andrej Javoršek
University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Snežniška 5,1000
Ljubljana, Slovenia

Md. Ibrahim H. Mondalx
Biljana Pejic
Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, University of Belgrade, Karnegijeva 4, 11000
Belgrade, Serbia
Catherine Canning
Department of Fashion, Marketing and Retailing, Glasgow Caledonian University,
Cowcaddens Road, Glasgow G4OBA, Scotland
Cesar Pulgarin
EPFL-SB-ISIC-GPAO, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Station 6, CH-1015,
Lausanne, Switzerland.
Christina Margariti
Textile conservator, Directorate of Conservation of Ancient and Modern Monuments /
Hellenic Ministry of Culture, 81 Peiraios Avenue, 10553 Athens, Greece
E-mail: chmargariti@culture.gr
Dejana Javoršek
University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Snežniška 5, 1000
Ljubljana, Slovenia
E-mail: dejana.javorsek@ntf.uni-lj.si
Dharmarajan Anita Rachel
NIFT TEA College of knitwear fashion, Tiruppur 641 606, India
E-mail: advaitcbe@rediffmail.com
Dušan Ž. Mijin
Belgrade, Serbia
E-mail: kavur@tmf.bg.ac.rs
Eva Bou-Belda
Departamento de Ingeniería Textil y Papelera, Universitat Politécnica de València, Plaza
Ferrandiz y Carbonell s/n, 03801 Alcoy, Spain
Gordana S. Ušćumlić
Belgrade, Serbia

Contributor Contact Details xi
Hans-Jürgen Buschmann
Deutsches Textilforschungszentrum Nord-West gGmbH, Universität Duisburg-Essen,
NETZ / DTNW gGmbH, Carl-Benz-Straße 199, D-47057, Duisburg, Germany
Ignacio Montava
Ismail Usta
Department of Textile Engineering, Faculty of Technology, Marmara University,
Goztepe, Istanbul 34722, Turkey
Jaime Gisbert
John Kiwi
EPFL-SB-ISIC-LPI, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Bâtiment Chimie,
Station 6, CH-1015, Lausanne, Switzerland
Julie McColl
E-mail: j.mccoll2@gcal.ac.uk
Karina Nobbs
London College of Fashion, 272 Holborn, London WCIV 7CY, UK
Katja Kavkler
Restoration Centre, Institute for the Protection of Cultural Heritage of Slovenia,
Ljubljana, Slovenia
E-mail: katja.kavkler@rescen.si
Linda Shearer

Md. Ibrahim H. Mondalxii
Louise McBride
Lucia Capablanca
Maria Bonet
E-mail: maboar@txp.upv.es
Maria Retsa
Marica Starešinič
University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Snežniška 5,
1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
E-mail: marica.staresinic@ntf.uni-lj.si
Marija Vukcevic
Belgrade, Serbia
E-mail: marijab@tmf.bg.ac.rs
Mashiur Rahman Khan
Polymer and Textile Research Lab., Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical
Engineering, Rajshahi University, Rajshahi- 6205, Bangladesh and
Department of Apparel Manufacturing Engineering, Bangladesh University of Textiles,
Tejgaon, Dhaka-1208, Bangladesh
Md. Ibrahim H. Mondal
Polymer and Textiles Research Lab, Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical
Engineering, University of Rajshahi, Bangladesh
E-mail: mihmondal@yahoo.com

Contributor Contact Details xiii
Mirjana Kostic
Belgrade, Serbia
Muhammet Uzun
Institute for Materials Research and Innovation, University of Bolton, Deane Road,
Bolton, BL3 5AB, UK, and
Department of Textile Engineering, Faculty of Technology, Marmara University,
Goztepe, Istanbul 34722, Turkey
E-mail: m.uzun@marmara.edu.tr
Narayanan Gokarneshan
Nataša V. Valentić
Belgrade, Serbia
Nina Gunde-Cimerman
Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana,
Slovenia,
and
Centre of Excellence for Integrated Approaches in Chemistry and Biology of Proteins
(CIPKeBiP), Jamova 39, SI-1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
P. Kandha Vadivu
Department of Fashion Technology, PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore 641004,
India
E-mail: vadivu67@yahoo.co.in
Pablo Díaz
Pablo Monllor

Md. Ibrahim H. Mondalxiv
Palaniappan P. Gopalakrishnan
Polona Zalar
Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana,
Slovenia
Primož Weingerl
University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Snežniška 5,1000
Ljubljana, Slovenia
Rosendo Sanjines
EPFL-SB-IPMC-LNNME Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Bat PH, Station 3,
CH-1015, Lausanne, Switzerland
Sami Rtimi
EPFL-SB-ISIC-GPAO, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Station 6, CH-1015,
Lausanne, Switzerland.
E-mail: sami.rtimi@epfl.ch
Sanjoy Debnath
National Institute of Research on Jute & Allied Fibre Technology, Indian Council of
Agricultural Research 12, Regent Park, Kolkata – 700 040, West Bengal, India
E-mail: sanjoydebnath@yahoo.com; sanjoydebnath@hotmail.com
Department of Chemistry, Durham University, Durham DH1 3LE, UK and
The School of Textiles and Design, Heriot-Watt University, Galashiels TD1 3HF, UK
E-mail: reduwan.shah@gmail.com or s.m.r.billah@durham.ac.uk
Stavroula Moraitou
Vahid Ameri Dehabadi
Deutsches Textilforschungszentrum Nord-West gGmbH, Universität Duisburg-Essen,
NETZ / DTNW gGmbH, Carl-Benz-Straße 199, D-47057, Duisburg, Germany
E-mail: vahid.ameri@dtnw.de

Contributor Contact Details xv
Venkatachalam Rajendran

In: Textiles: History, Properties and Performance … ISBN: 978-1-63117-262-5
Editor: Md. Ibrahim H. Mondal © 2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 1
AN EXPLORATION OF VINTAGE FASHION RETAILING
Julie McColl1,
, Catherine Canning1
,
Louise McBride1
, Karina Nobbs2
and Linda Shearer1
1
Department of Business Management, Glasgow
Caledonian University, Glasgow, Scotland
2
London College of Fashion, London, UK
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this research is to offer a definition of vintage fashion and consider
the characteristics of the vintage fashion consumer and the positioning of the vintage
fashion store from the perspective of fifteen vintage fashion retailers. The research
indicates that vintage fashion retailers position themselves on the basis of their
uniqueness, based upon their experience, knowledge and skills.
Keywords: Vintage, fashion, definition, customer characteristics, positioning
INTRODUCTION
Over the past decade there has been an increasing trend for vintage fashion clothing [1].
Indeed, McMeekin [2] and Wilson and Thorpe [3] have identified that vintage fashion is a
multimillion pound industry. Previously, second-hand clothing was purchased by low income
groups, economically disadvantaged in terms of mainstream fashion. More recently, however,
vintage clothing has become an alternative or an additional choice to high street fashion [4,
5]. Tolkien [6] has proposed that vintage stores and markets have become a desirable source
for acquiring fashion items. This may be the result of increasing societal acceptance of an
aesthetic shift, with vintage fashion being intended as a means of self-expression and
differentiation [4, 7, 8].

Corresponding author: Julie McColl. Department of Business Management, Glasgow Caledonian University,
Cowcaddens Road, Glasgow G4OBA, Scotland. E-mail: j.mccoll2@gcal.ac.uk.

Julie McColl, Catherine Canning, Louise McBride et al.2
The acceptance of second hand clothing as an alternative to high street fashion is partly
due to the resurgence of fashion styles from the 1960s, 1970s and the 1980s [9], and the
influence of celebrity culture [4, 10].
Consumers are increasingly aware of unethical practices in the fashion industry [10-12],
and have become less tolerant towards disposable fashion and more suspicious of the
behavior of global brands [8, 13]. The move of vintage from niche sub-culture to mainstream
may be evidenced by the increased vintage offerings by high street, luxury and online
retailers and by the plethora of guides on selecting and assembling vintage clothing outfits [4,
14, 15, 8, 16]. This apparent increase in vintage offerings has broadened the opportunities for
the consumption of vintage clothing.
The term vintage is widely used yet has never been clearly defined [4, 7], in terms of the
parameters, characteristics and the positioning of the vintage fashion retail store. The
literature on the retailer positioning strategies is clearly established [17-26], however, there is
little published research on vintage fashion retailing, and developments in the market and
their implications for vintage fashion retailers has not been addressed. This exploratory study
defines the concept of vintage fashion and the vintage fashion consumer. It evaluates the
positioning strategies of vintage fashion retailers, explores how they differentiate themselves
in the face of increased competition and considers the implications of the more recent vintage
trend for traditional vintage retailers.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Definition of Vintage
It is difficult to define the concept of vintage, partly due to the lack of agreement
regarding the specific time periods of ‘vintage’, ‘antique’ and ‘retro’ but also due to
differences in opinion about the constituents of such clothing items.
According to De Long [7, p. 23] “in clothing, vintage usually involves the recognition of
a special type or model, and knowing and appreciating such specifics as year or period when
produced or worn”. Furthermore, they suggest that vintage clothing is concerned with a
specific time period or setting and is distinguished from “antique, historical, consignment, re-
used or second-hand”. Palmer and Clark [4, p. 175], define the term more broadly proposing
that it is “used to cover a huge spectrum of clothes that are not newly designed”. Tungate [8,
p. 221] offers a more focused definition which highlights the evolution and complexity of the
term, identifying that “any one particular item may change through time and usage by the
fashion media, so that second hand becomes known as retro then in turn as vintage”. The
increase in availability of vintage and the growth of on-line availability of vintage clothing
has added confusion to the array of vintage definitions [4].
From the customer view point, Tungate [8], proposes that vintage is an intangible concept
which is more about attitude than style of dress.
Similarly Palmer [4], characterises vintage fashion as a symbol of individuality and
originality. A primary aim of this research was to define vintage from the perspective of the
vintage fashion retailer.

An Exploration of Vintage Fashion Retailing 3
Characteristics of the Vintage Consumer
Traditionally the buying of second-hand apparel has been subject to negative meanings as
a mark of poverty [27, 28]. Tseëlon [29] acknowledged that this type of social judgment has
been discounted by the vintage consumer in their quest for non-conformity to fashion trends.
Silverman [30], recognized increased demand for vintage goods amongst the young consumer
and the middle class consumer. Crewe and Forster [31], agree with this explanation, adding
that these groups acquire vintage fashion for excitement and as a means of displaying
themselves in public. Hansen [32], segments the vintage consumers into young professionals
who want good quality apparel at modest prices, or young people keen on retro subculture
looks like Punk, Rave or Mod styles.
In addition, Woodward’s [16] study explored younger consumer’s affection for vintage
clothing and recognized that the incentive for consumption was to achieve a level of
differentiation from their peers. Additionally, a substantial consumer group has been
acknowledged as taste-makers: stylists, designers and image makers who use it as a means of
inspiration and creativity [33-35]. The ownership, or the wearing of vintage items along with
high street clothes, has become anindication of how fashionable the wearer is, with an
increasing prominence on how the items are sourced, and not just on how the person looks
[16]. The increase in mass market vintage has possibly weakened the authentic charm of
vintage among ‘fashion’ orientated consumers, i.e., those more concerned with how things
look and being individual in style, than having a deferential concern with the historic and
representative links of these sometimes uncommon items which the vintage connoisseur and
retail experts so value [7, 36, 38].
History and Key Drivers
Vintage as mainstream fashion emerged as a trend in the 1980’s [38]. Tolkien [6] has
identified vintage as stemming from the New York social fashion elite, influenced by
sentimental pictures of 1940’s couture. In addition, celebrities fueled demand and popularity
of the style by wearing luxury vintage gowns to major award ceremonies and fashion shows.
Others credit Barbra Streisand as the first vintage-couture advocate [39]. In turn, this
encouraged designers such as Marc Jacobs, in the 1990s to create the ‘nouveau vintage’ look
by reinventing older styles [40].
This trend also occurred in the UK and Europe with designers and celebrities such as
Stella McCartney and Kate Moss inspiring mainstream adoption of vintage fashion [41, 42].
The appreciation of vintage aesthetics which grew in the 1990s helped to decrease the stigma
of wearing second hand clothing, and permitted them to develop in to acceptable sources of
fashion. This resulted in a differentiation both in-store and in the consumer’s mind, between
vintage and clothing purchased from charity stores [1, 4, 6, 43]. The media has endorsed
vintage fashion as a means of conveying connoisseurship and uniqueness, more recently
extended by the juxtaposition of vintage and contemporary in one ensemble [4, 8].
Jackson and Shaw [44] highlight an important driver in the vintage movement is media
attention on the unethical practices which exist in the fashion industry, resulting in a
consumer backlash against disposable fashion and the beginnings of a ‘slow fashion’
movement, who emphasize the importance of quality as opposed to quantity [45].

An additional driver acknowledged by Tungate [8] is customer defiance of expensive,
branded products and trends promoted through marketing communications. In recent years,
the economic downturn has witnessed ‘upcycled’ fashion items becoming a mainstream
phenomenon; this is the re-working of old clothes into more modern-day, higher value pieces
[46, 47].
The influential ‘retail guru’, author and broadcaster Mary Portas, successfully developed
a media campaign in 2009 called ‘Living and Giving’ which improved the image of charity
shops and further increased demand in vintage clothing [48]. More recently, in a study of
street style Woodward [16], indicated that the trend for vintage has reached maturity and
might now be perceived as commonplace or omnipresent.
In the case of both the retailer and the consumer alike, the uptake of the vintage trend in
the ‘noughties’ has caused a reduction in the availability of interesting and unusual items,
affecting the market in two ways. Firstly key pieces have increased in value and vintage
fashion has grown to be an investment prospectrivaling the collection of artwork [49-50].
Agins [51] has identified that this is as a result of the widely broadcast view that the couture
industry is declining, with prices accelerating and skilled workmanship growing scarcer.
Secondly it means that traditional vintage consumers are being forced to search extensively
and even globally to source the desired article [52].
In total there are three key drivers of vintage fashion trends. Firstly, the trickle down
feature from celebrities and designers, secondly, the ethical aspect of the fashion industry and
finally the need for individual uniqueness and authenticity. Palmer [4, p. 197) proposes that
“vintage has now shifted from subculture to mass culture because of the disappointing fact
that, regardless of price, fashion today is rarely exclusive”.
Market Structure and Vintage Retail Formats
Mhango and Niehm [53] suggest that vintage clothing retailers are focused within the
small business sector, and are characteristically independently owned. These include second-
hand stores for example thrift or charity shops, estate sales, garage sales, flea markets and
auctions, usually the province of commercially-mediated lateral recycling [31, 54].
Nevertheless, vintage clothing retailers have now developed to comprise multifaceted retail
support functions such as sourcing, supply chain management and visual merchandising [55].
Moreover many charity stores in Great Britain have re-invented themselves as ‘vintage’ to
increase their apparent brand value and to distinguish themselves from others in the sector
[12]. Mainstream high street retailers such as Top Shop and Urban Outfitters have
successfully sold vintage clothing ranges for a number of years [15]. Tolkien [6] ascertains
that the internet as a significant channel in the distribution of vintage clothing, however this
phenomenon requires an alternative research approach and can be addressed in future studies.
Retail Positioning
Porter's [56, 57] theory of positioning theory has had an lasting impact on the marketing
literature [58-65], and practice [66, 67], as one of the most significant concepts and
fundamental principles of marketing [63, 64], central to strategic marketing success [68].

The positioning strategy implemented by any company is grounded in the needs of the
customer, the behaviour of the competition, and is ultimately how companies can achieve
competitive advantage [69-73].
It is commonly acknowledged that although there are a number of positioning typologies
developed within the marketing planning framework [59, 73-74], there is a lack of empirical
research testing these typologies [61, 64]. Yip [75] has proposed that a number of the
positioning approaches suggested within the literature, are incomplete and may be confusing.
Table 1 offers a summary of positioning typologies. The concepts of these positioning
typologies are considered by the authors as the central means by which the organisation can
attain differentiation, increase competitive advantage and therefore position themselves
within the market [64].
Table 1. Summary of positioning typologies
Author Positioning constructs i.e., concepts
Features and Benefits
Aaker and Shansby [59];
Berry [78]; Buskirk [76];
Brown and Sims [77];
Crawford [79]; Hooley, et
al. [63]; Wind [73]
Features, price, advertising, distribution, problem solved, usage
situation, users, competitors, value, time efficiency, high contact,
sensory, benefits, product class dissociation, attributes, price,
quality, use or application, product/service user, product/service
class, competition, direct/indirect, surrogates: nonpareil,
parentage (brand, company, person), manufacture, target, rank,
endorsements, experience, predecessor, innovation-imitation,
superior service-limited service, differentiated benefits-
undifferentiated features, tailored offering-standard offering.
Strategic positioning
Ries and Trout [66]
Market leader, follower, reposition the competition, use the name,
line extension (use of house name).
Easingwood and Mahajan
[80]
Reputation/capabilities of organisation: expertise, reliability,
innovativeness, performance, augmentation of product offering:
product augmentation, extra service, people advantage, more
attractive package offering, a superior product through
technology, accessibility, extra attention given to individual
requirements through customisation, satisfaction of more user
needs within the sector through offering a complete product line.
Arnott [61, 58]
Empathy, solvency, promotions, administrative time, helpfulness,
reliability, attentiveness, staff competence, flexible products,
access to people, reputation, customisation, incentives, social
awareness, security, technology.
Kalafatis, et al. [72]
Easy to do business, personal contact, product performance,
range of offerings, presence, safety, leadership, distinct identity,
status, country identity, differentiation, attractiveness.
Source: Adapted from Blankson and Kalafatis [64].
Blankson and Kalafatis [64], however, consider existing studies to be descriptive,
difficult to put into practice and based on limited empirical testing, principally in terms of
their representation within consumer marketplaces, their propensity being to represent the

views of management. They propose that the literature lacks an empirically based consumer/
customer derived typology, which can measure the effectiveness of positioning strategies
employed.
Having carried out extensive empirical research, they have proposed a positioning
typology based on customer opinions, which they advise is suitable for both product and
service markets and recommend that managers develop their positioning based on consumer
perceptions of prestige, service, reliability, attractiveness, country of origin and brand name.
These, they propose, are the key differentiating features within the marketplace and can be
successfully deployed in marketing communication.
In the retailing literature, Cook and Walters [19] suggest that a company’s market
position is its reaction to its understanding of the needs, desires and behavioural
characteristics of its target customer profile. Retail positioning is defined by Wortzel [81, p.
47] who proposes:
“For a retailer, strategic positioning involves providing unique value. Strategic
positioning involves selecting and then bringing to bear an integrated set of tools and
communication techniques that identify and explain the store to the customer.”
Walters [18] offers a model of positioning developed as the consequence of wide-ranging
empirical research within the retail sector. The fundamentals of the positioning strategy in
retailing, he suggests, are a visible response to the needs and wants of the identified target
market. The key decision areas for retailers in evolving their marketing strategy are those of
trading format, merchandise strategy, customer service and customer communications
strategy. These decision areas define the retailer positioning strategy, and position them in
terms of what the customer anticipates and customer satisfaction, creating a point of
distinction which separates retailers from their competitors and represents the retail brand [82,
26].
While established as a theoretical model, the strategic elements of Walters’s [18] value
added positioning statement are still recognised in the retail marketing literature as the means
by which retailers should position themselves in the market [17-26].
Therefore it forms the basis of a number of empirical studies on retailer brand positioning
[20, 26, 81, 83-88, 89, 90], which stress the possible benefits of developing a clear and
distinctive positioning statement using the elements of the retailing mix. Consequently it was
thought to be the most suitable framework for application within this study. However,
although there are a number of positioning typologies developed in the marketing and
retailing planning context [59, 73-74], there is still a lack of empirical research testing these
typologies [61, 64].
The literature suggests that small retailers, like those addressed within this study, are
different from larger companies in terms of management systems and resources, and that
planning, control and strategy are a result of the personal objectives and personality of the
owner manager [91-93]. However, within the vintage retail sector, this proposition has not
been tested. This research serves to help address this issue.

METHODOLOGY
Small companies are dominant within the vintage retail sector and generally evolve from
the entrepreneurs who are enthusiastic about vintage themselves [12, 14]. The decision to
focus on small scale companies is also supported by evidence provided in the vintage retailing
literature, as existing research focuses on small companies [53, 54]. To be selected for this
study the vintage retailers had to meet some or all of the specifications within the literature.
They had to have high levels of experience in both buying and merchandising and so had to
have been in business for at least two years. The participants of the study therefore had
between two and twenty three years experience of running a vintage retailing company. To
ensure consistency of trading practices, participants were required to trade as bricks and
mortar businesses.
Therefore, participants would provide credible information as to the concept, positioning
and differentiation of small vintage fashion retailers. Thirty nine vintage fashion retailers
from Scottish towns and cities were identified from The Yellow Pages, trade journals and
company websites.
Of these, twenty seven were found to have been in business for over two years, however
one was found to sell only on an online basis. A letter was sent to these twenty six vintage
fashion retailers from the population sample of thirty nine in September of 2009. A follow up
phone call was made a week later. Sixteen retailers responded that they were willing to
participate in the study, however, one potential participant remained unavailable. Therefore
fifteen interviews were carried out with owner/managers of vintage retail stores. All
participants had direct experience in the areas of buying and merchandising within the vintage
retail sector. The owner managers were between twenty three and fifty eight years old.
The interviews took place within the retail premises and were approximately two hours
long. Confidentiality was assured. The interviews were taped, transcribed and retained as
Microsoft Word documents. Analysis was carried out by one member of the research team to
ensure consistency. First of all the transcripts were analysed to identify common
characteristics and emerging themes and issues.
At this stage, a “cluster” approach was adopted and a framework for theoretical
development began to emerge [94]. These clusters were selected on the basis of significance,
mutual exclusivity and ability to stand by themselves [95]. Yin [95] suggests that data
analysis consists of examining, categorising, tabulating, and testing the content to address the
initial propositions of the research. Interviews were analysed one at a time individually and
then on a cross interview analysis. Patton [96] suggests that the analysis involves the
application of the existing theoretical framework, developed from the literature, and the
subsequent analysis of the interviews to allow for an examination of emerging patterns.
According to the theories and concepts extracted from the literature, the interviewees
were asked open-ended questions about their definition of vintage, the vintage customer,
merchandising and the positioning of the vintage store.
The results and discussion section is therefore divided into three sections. Firstly, the
research seeks to define vintage fashion and investigate the vintage fashion movement,
secondly, the research explores the characteristics of the vintage fashion consumer from the
perspective of the store owner/managers, and finally it explores positioning in relation to the
retail vintage fashion sector.

RESULTS
Defining Vintage Fashion
There was no unified or clear definition of vintage with each vintage retailer offering
differing opinions and suggestions. However, three dimensions emerged. Firstly the age of
the apparel, secondly the style, (a piece of clothing which sums up the era), and finally the
quality of the vintage clothing. The majority stated that fashion which predates the 1990s
would be considered to be vintage. To a number of interviewees ‘vintage’ could be
categorised as anything up until the 1950s, with anything that pre dates 1980 being classified
as ‘retro’, and anything before the 1920s being considered as ‘antique’.
“Probably not the 1990s but anything before that, especially the 1980s at the
moment. Only the fashion forward are looking for 1990’s articles”
Some items of clothing were seen to represent the zeitgeist of bygone eras and these were
particularly important to vintage consumers. Examples included a 1950’s prom dress or
Dior’s ‘New Look’ full skirt. In 1960, ‘Twiggy-style’ 1960’s mini dress, in the 1970’s
platform shoes and bell bottom trousers and 1980’s pedal pusher short trousers and frilled
shirts from the New Romantic movement.
All participants agreed that, in order to satisfy customers, articles have to be of good
quality. Almost all the participants agreed that vintage fashion was second hand, however, a
few retailers sold old clothing manufactured in the past which was unworn. One retailer was
selling unworn “Brutus” and “Lee” denim jeans from the 1970s which had been discovered in
a warehouse. The most desirable items were those which had been bought in a past era but
had rarely or never been worn, for example items which have been kept for special occasions
and were in pristine condition. Examples included evening dresses, a wedding dress or a
formal suit. One participant summed up the general opinion stating:
Vintage fashion isn’t something that is just old. If a ‘50’s dress is an ugly hideous
rag- that is what it is, an ugly hideous rag. Vintage is the very, very best of its type.
Characteristics of the Vintage Consumer
Retailers were invited to define the vintage consumer from their own viewpoint.
Participants stated that many of their customers were “fashion conscious” and “young”
consumers, with an average age of between eighteen and twenty (many of them students),
however all participants stated that the age range of their consumers was very diverse. It was
found that he 18-25 year old consumers are most likely to be influenced by fashion trends. It
was recognised that this particular segment had adopted the ongoing vintage trend which had
positively increased demand for vintage clothing overall. These younger consumers were seen
to be setting the trend for current trickle up fashion looks such the “nerd college look”, and
“geek chic” (spectacles, drainpipe trousers or retro skirts with blouses and tank tops). The
interviewees proposed that these trends had also extended to celebrities and were linked to
sub-culture music trends.

Young consumers were seen to purchase for originality and enjoyment, to display aspects
of their own individual style, and in many cases, price. Participants stressed their ability to
offer uniqueness which people see as a method of individual self expression. There was a
certain status provided by the originality of rare clothing. One proposed:
You always feel quite smug when you say ‘Oh its Vintage’ there’s no way the person
can go out and copy you
The next most important group of consumers identified were older customers (aged 30-
70) who tended to purchase on price and nostalgia rather than trend. This segment were likely
to invest more time, money and effort in their purchases and were generally more motivated
about the authenticity of the product. For example, a number of participants discussed the
importance to the customer of the story behind the garment; what one termed as “vintage
magic.” Consumers were buying ‘more than a skirt or shirt,’ they were buying a piece of
history, and often enjoyed hearing a story behind an item or ‘a treasure.’ Additionally,
participants highlighted an increase in the number of ethical consumers, conscious of
environmental issues and recycling. This customer group was diverse in age and nature.
Finally, a small proportion of customers were collectors and business customers, for example
television, film and theatre wardrobe designers and stylists for fashion magazines.
Vintage Retailer Positioning
Merchandising Strategy
The main concern by the retailers in sourcing garments was the authenticity of vintage
fashion. Most considered vintage fashion to be authentic by the perceived age and its level of
originality. They particularly sought garments which had been handmade and were therefore
exclusive. Exclusivity is of particular importance as it allows premium pricing and provides
differentiation for the store. Older designer clothing from fashion brands such as Chanel and
Biba are becoming rare and difficult to source. Some of these older garments particularly with
brand names are highly sought after. Products that are mass produced (even older clothing
from the 1980s for example) are less likely to be perceived as authentic and are therefore less
desirable. One retailer stated:
Authentic vintage is an original garment and not a vintage label from a high street
store. They are obviously complete one offs and that in my mind is worth a lot more than
some dress that’s been churned out by Marks and Spencer. Back in the ‘40s, ‘50s and
‘60s people were making their own clothes, which are highly desirable now.
Participants explained that they were able to verify the authenticity of garments through
their personal expertise, gained through experience of sourcing and buying. Many retailers
considered themselves to have expert technical knowledge, and could determine garment
authenticity by the stitching, (e.g., of hand sewn products rather than machine produced) the
fabric quality, and the smell of the garments. Because of the increasing difficulty in sourcing
good quality vintage items some retailers had decided to sell more modern items that had
been manufactured more recently but were made to an appropriate vintage design.

They understood that the authenticity of these garments was debatable; however they
agreed that consumers wanted to purchase this type of ‘pseudo-vintage’ product due to the
desire to follow the vintage trend.
Retailers sourced second hand merchandise from a wide variety of second hand stores
and markets both at home and abroad, charity and second hand clothing stores, car boot sales,
recycling plants and many garments are donated by customers or other shoppers who wish to
recycle. Vintage retailers will also recycle clothing back to recycling plants or ‘rag yards’ if
they are unable to sell the garments.
Merchandise was both bought in bulk ‘by the sack’ or ‘large load’, or handpicked.
Retailers occasionally sourced more exclusive merchandise from private individuals who
perhaps were collectors themselves and chose to trade their personal vintage garments to be
enjoyed by other enthusiasts or vintage collectors.
Some store representatives discussed of more recent emerging markets in Eastern Europe
which offer opportunities for trade and sourcing of vintage clothing, offering alternatives to
what is still available in the UK market. Participants also highlighted France and the US as
fruitful sources. One stated that the US was particularly good for 1920’s dresses. One retailer
observed:
I am sure there is a totally untapped market in Russia. I would like to visit there and
raid some wardrobes. Russia is so large and many people don’t know the value of vintage
garments yet.
Retailers selected merchandise according to ‘gut feel’ and intuition and was therefore a
very personal issue. Participants sourced according to their personal expertise of the market,
their customers and their personal knowledge of fashion history. The research found therefore
that this personal expertise was highlighted by all participants as their main point of
differentiation and competitive advantage. In many cases they proposed that a synergy existed
between themselves, their knowledge of style and their customers. In most cases retailers
explained that they understood their regular customers’ needs and wants and were able to buy
accordingly.
The most popular brands were found to be Biba, Bus Stop, Mary Quant, Burberry, Dior
and Chanel. Unlike high street fast fashion models, stock was not ‘turned around’ in weeks
however, there is a seasonal approach to vintage merchandise. During the spring and summer,
female consumers were looking for summer dresses, 1950’s style dirndl skirts (full skirt
gathered at the waist), miniskirts and more recently in line with changing fashion trends, maxi
dresses. During the winter, the demand was for heavier outerwear and coats, hats, gloves and
scarves. Retailers explained that as a result of catwalk trends, there is still demand for real fur
coats.
Participants explained that consumers believed that the wearing of old, second hand fur
coats was acceptable to many of their customers because these items were manufactured prior
to increased ethical awareness of animal rights issues.
Older fur therefore was perceived as glamorous and stylish despite the recent concerns
surrounding new fur products. ‘Occasion’ dresses from any vintage era were always in
demand and at Christmas, customers were looking for appropriate glamorous party wear. A
table of the most popular items is outlined in Table 2 below. Selection of these items was
based on more than half of the sample highlighting these product categories:

Table 2. Most popular vintage items for men and women
Ladies vintage items Men’s vintage items
1950s prom dresses
1960s shift dresses,
1970s maxi dresses
Evening wear – glamorous gowns, sequined and
embroidered dresses
Real and fake fur coats and jackets
Cashmere jumpers and cardigans
Jewellery and watches
Handbags, scarves and belts
High heels and flat boots for ladies from the
1960s, 1970s and 1980s
Formal wear
Evening suits
Suits from the 1950s and 1960s
Traditional dress (Kilts)
Retro Adidas tracksuit tops from the 1970s
Levis jeans and denim jackets
Cowboy boots
Military dress
Leather briefcases
Ties
One of the key challenges that participants highlighted was the procurement of
appropriate, second hand stock which is in good condition. Due to the popularity of the trend,
there is an increasing scarcity of stock as older garments become more worn and therefore
less appealing due to reduced quality. This was seen to be an enduring problem which has
heightened competition in the vintage sector.
There was a level of preparation required for all second hand garments. All the vintage
retailers washed or dry cleaned items before sale. Some items required repairs such as sewing
on buttons or zips, or making alterations such as altering hem lines. However, normally
alterations were minimal so that the authenticity of the garments was not compromised. In
some cases however, participants created new garments by combining two pieces together. If
a part of a garment was too ‘worn out’ to be sold, sections of garments and fabrics could be
‘rescued’. One participant proposed:
We buy dresses that are full length and we cut them to mini dresses. We actually
have a tailor next door who does all that for us. We have bought blazers and put
accessories on them to make them look more interesting
Customer Service
Personal service was found to be essential to the success of most of the retailers. Most
employees were owner/managers, assisted by partners, friends or family members who had a
vested interest in the success of the store. All retailers explained that they know a high
proportion of their customers very well, considering individual customer tastes, needs and
style when sourcing garments. Some participants would store items for particular customers.
In addition, customers frequently request the sourcing of specific items. Therefore, the basis
of much of the customer service for vintage retailers was the building of relationships.
Additionally, all had a loyal and regular customer base. Many proposed that the development
of these relationships allowed retailers to offer a personalised service. A number of retailers
offered an alteration service for their customers. Therefore differentiation was possible for
these retailers due to the relationships and customer service they developed with their
consumers.

Most proposed that they themselves personally were the differentiation through their
passion for the vintage concept, their choice of merchandise, their expert knowledge and
expertise. One participant stated:
It’s me. The company is built around my personality, personal style and taste. My
customers like that and they trust my judgement.
Communications
Store image elements were the most important methods of communication for vintage
stores. That is, the window display and the store interior. The window display was seen as
vitally important to generate interest and curiosity from passersby and the unique store
interior and merchandise communicated a distinctive brand image. In terms of traditional
communications, most of the retailers did not use print advertising often due to expense and
due to limited success using this method in the past. A few advertised in local directories and
the Yellow Pages. Many participants explained that local press editorial had proved to be very
effective in increasing awareness and enhancing business profile. The main type of
communication reported that was thought to be essential by all interviewees is word of mouth
(WoM) marketing due to the high levels of personal service outlined above. Positive customer
experiences were thought to be vitally important for promotion and generating custom.
The group was divided in relation to e-marketing. Only half of the participants operated a
website. However, several participants interacted with social media platforms (at varying
levels) in order to connect with the vintage fashion community, to increase brand awareness
and generate enquires and consumer awareness.
Store Trading Format
All the participants in the study were small-scale retailers who were independently
owned. Typically, most stores were single units which were 700-1100sq.ft. in size. Many
were located in secondary geographical locations with a ‘neighbourhood feel.’ All of the
retailers included in this research described themselves as traditional ‘bricks and mortar’
boutique-style shops. Of those that operated websites, most were non transactional, and two
of the stores had their own on-line stores. The majority of sales were traditional, meaning in
store retailer to consumer business. Interestingly, a few retailers had evolved their stores from
market stalls and indicated that a proportion of vintage trade still took place on that basis.
All proprietors explained that the store image was essential to vintage retailing. Many
participants stated that the window styling, store layout and product display was important to
create the atmosphere of “a bygone era” and many described the stores as “quirky” and
“individual”. Each store represented the personality of the owner, with one retailer explaining
that he wanted to “create the right kind of vibe” with music from a previous era and choosing
items carefully to represent his sense of taste and style. Many displayed interesting pieces that
were collectors’ items or were appropriate to present the vintage image. Old gramophones,
old bicycles, wallpaper from the 1970s and 1980s, old pictures and pieces of art and various
other pieces of memorabilia were displayed according to the proprietors’ preference. The
product display varied from store to store. Most displayed clothing in racks similar to new
modern high street retailing and many had containers such as baskets and boxes and shelves
of mixed accessories and jewellery that consumers enjoyed “sifting through” and “hunting for
a treasure or a bargain.”

CONCLUSION
The vintage movement was mainly something of a “fad” that was followed by a small
group of innovators such as art school and fashion students. However more recently it would
appear to be an enduring trend, increasing in popularity, growing into a mainstream fashion
phenomenon. This is evidenced by its diverse customer base, adopted by young, fashion
conscious consumers and maintaining a group of diverse traditional vintage customers of a
variety of age groups.
The movement has also gained interest due to more recent concerns over ethical issues
such as recycling and sustainability. This study discovered two main groups of consumers;
young and fashion conscious, interested in current trends and mix and matching from various
styles, high street and vintage and also an older customer with a greater focus on price and
interest in nostalgia. An emerging issue for many customers were their ethical concerns. This
research explores the retailer perspective of the vintage fashion trend. Future research is
necessary, to investigate consumer motivation buying vintage fashion of these different
groups.
This research set out to define the concept of vintage fashion within its current context.
Therefore, vintage fashion can be defined as:
Garments and accessories which are more than twenty years old, which represent a
particular fashion era, and which are valued for their uniqueness and authenticity.
Positioning strategies of vintage fashion retailers was also explored. Table 3 highlights
the key areas of positioning within vintage retailing.
The research therefore revealed that vintage retailers position themselves through their
distinctive retailing mix. Vintage proprietors explained they could source items that were
totally individual and unique. As one store owner stated, You are buying a piece of history…
a treasure. This was the main difference between other independent stores.
Table 3. Vintage Retailer Positioning Elements
Customer
communication
Trading format
Merchandise
strategy
Customer service
Individual retail brand
image, quirky and
constantly evolving,
distinctive store
environment, window
and interior displays,
retro props, localised
PR, word of mouth,
growing importance of
social media
Small scale,
independent, single
site, secondary
geographical
location, multi-
channel
participation,
boutique style,
unique store image
which represents the
personality of the
owner
Sourcing: personal,
diverse, intuitive,
expert and historical
knowledge, global
Product: authentic,
original, exclusive,
rare brands, pre-
owned, handpicked,
limited supply of
merchandise
Personal, individual,
relationship based,
long term, synergy
between business
owner and customer,
availability of
adjustments and
alterations,
employee passion
for the vintage
concept
Source: adapted from Walters [22].

Sourcing therefore was an extensive challenging and time consuming process which
reflected the personality and expertise of the proprietors. The “quirkiness” of the store interior
and environment was also of importance and word of mouth communication was also found
to be very important in terms of promotions. Vintage retailers are often small scale, owner-
managed businesses, and are because of this, closer to their customers and able to form
individual relationships through merchandise supply and customer service. The influence of
the owner/manager, their style and personality is consequently reflected and embedded in the
positioning of the company, offering differentiation of their individual stores in the market.
There remains a gap in the literature in terms of analysis of the vintage customer. The
positioning model above could, in future studies, be used to establish consumer responses to
vintage retailer strategy.
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In: Textiles: History, Properties and Performance … ISBN: 978-1-63117-262-5
Editor: Md. Ibrahim H. Mondal © 2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 2
DEVELOPING SUSTAINABLE DESIGN ON
DENIM READY-MADE APPARELS BY
STONE AND ENZYMATIC WASHING
Md. Ibrahim H. Mondal1,
and Md. Mashiur Rahman Khan1,2,†
1
Polymer and Textile Research Lab., Department of Applied Chemistry
and Chemical Engineering, Rajshahi University, Rajshahi, Bangladesh
2
Department of Apparel Manufacturing Engineering, Bangladesh
University of Textiles, Tejgaon, Dhaka, Bangladesh
ABSTRACT
Denim is the most preferable apparel of today’s youth. Washing is one of the
fundamental chemical processing steps prior to finishing fresh-assembled denim ready-
made apparels and has the largest effect on outlook appearance and other physico-
mechanical properties of finished denim apparel. The fresh denim trousers, twill 3/1
weave and composition 100% cotton, have been processed by enzyme washing and
pumice stone-enzyme washing technique using various parameters namely concentrations
of pumice stone (10 to 70%) (owg), concentration of cellulase enzyme (0.5 to 3.5%)
(owg), washing temperatures (40 to 65o
C) and treatment times (20 to 60 min) with fixed
pH (4.8) in fiber to liquor ratio of 1:10 in an industrial sample washing machine. In order
to evaluate the influence of these washing parameters on the properties of denim apparel
like tensile strength, fabric weight, color change, stiffness and water absorption has been
determined. Fabric surface was also examined by scanning electron microscope (SEM)
and fluorescence microscope (FM). The washing parameters has a great influences on the
properties of denim. Stone washing increased the softness (by reducing stiffness) and
flexibility (in terms of bending length) of denim apparels and gave a used look
appearance on denim apparel distinctly. The properties of denim apparels are varied
depending on the amount of pumice stone used.

Md. Ibrahim H. Mondal: Polymer and Textile Research Lab., Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical
Engineering, Rajshahi University, Rajshahi- 6205, Bangladesh. E-mail: mihmondal@yahoo.com.
†
Md. Mashiur Rahman Khan: Polymer and Textile Research Lab., Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical
Engineering, Rajshahi University, Rajshahi- 6205, Bangladesh. Department of Apparel Manufacturing
Engineering, Bangladesh University of Textiles, Tejgaon, Dhaka-1208, Bangladesh.

Md. Ibrahim H. Mondal and Mashiur Rahman Khan20
The results indicate that for producing sustainable denim apparel the optimized
washing condition for the best value is 30% pumice stone with 2.0% cellulase enzyme at
55 o
C for 40 min.
Keywords: Denim apparel, cotton, cellulase enzyme, pumice stone, tensile strength, washing,
color fading
1. INTRODUCTION
The increasing demand of denim apparel in the world market has imposed extreme
pressures on the textile industries. The use of chemicals in the textile industry has been
known and applied commercially for many years. In particular, textile washing industries are
using various chemicals in processing denim ready-made apparels for producing specific
washing effects and designs. The research attempts to examine different washing techniques
for the modification of denim apparels and searches for the dynamic best method for
producing sustainable denim apparel designs. Understandably, this concern motivates many
efforts to modify denim apparels with new designs in order to face the challenges of fast-
changing fashion trends. Although denim apparel has been popular since the early1980’s, the
term “sustainable denim” is a relatively new concept to the apparel industry. Sustainable
denim has become to be a dominating factor in the apparel industry. Now-a-days, there is
awareness on environmental concern among the customers and buyers. In this respect, present
work has been undertaken to fulfill the current demand of customers using environment
friendly chemicals for denim washing.
Therefore, the study investigated evaluative specifications used by designers and buyers
for producing denim apparel with sustainability. Bangladesh is a textile industry based
developing country. At present, Bangladesh earns about 80% foreign currency from the
textile and RMG sectors. Bangladesh started RMG export in 1977-78 and continues export
under quota to the US till 2004. In January 2005, the RMG sector of Bangladesh faced new
challenges due to the withdrawn of quota by US government. From that time, the US market
is open for all and highly competitive. Currently there are about 5600 ready-made garment
industries in Bangladesh and from these RMG industries Bangladesh earns about 21.51
billion US dollar [1]. To sustain the RMG sector of Bangladesh in the competitive world
market, it is essential to produce new design and fashion apparel with sustainability. Denim
apparel is produced from very strong and stiff denim fabric and its popularity is increasing
day by day in the world market. Without washing/finishing treatment denim apparel is
uncomfortable to wear, hence it can be modified by washing and introduces new look and
fashion. There have been many attempts to use chemicals in various washing techniques like
bleach wash, enzyme wash, stone wash, etc. The washing of denim apparel by enzymatic
process, specially cellulases that would degrade the color of denim and improve the handle
and drape, dimensional stability and surface characteristics reported by Kawamura and
Wakida [2], Tyndall [3], Kumar et al. [4], Duran and Marcela [5], Gubitz and Cavaco-Paulo
[6] and Cortez et al. [7]. Cellulases are introduced to replace aggressive chlorine bleach in
denim washing [8] but the enzymatic attack of cellulase is not only limited to the surfaces, act
synergistically in hydrolysing cellulose to glucose [9], causing unacceptable weight and
strength loss to the fibers.

Developing Sustainable Design on Denim Ready-Made Apparels … 21
It is believed that if the denim apparels are chemically washed with enzyme and stone-
enzyme separately in order to decrease their minimum strength and weight for producing
specific washing effects and designs, their chemical attack would be restricted only to the
surface of the fabric, which is the main purpose of this research work. Thus, the work
proposes the use of bio-degradable cellulase enzyme and stone-enzyme in place of harmful
chemicals and attempts to optimize the process parameters, such as, concentrations of
chemicals, concentrations of pumice stone, temperatures, and times with high wear
performance like durability and longevity (with minimum strength losses) of apparel in
producing sustainable denim apparel.
1.1. Denim Apparel Washing
The washing of apparel generally means cleaning of dirty apparels with soap or
detergent. But industrial apparel washing is a technology which is used to modify the
appearance, outlook, comfort ability and fashion of the apparels. With the changes of time,
human choices, demands, and apparel’s design and fashion changing very quickly. To meet
the present demand of consumers, apparel manufacturers are adapting new technology and
processes in washing. The washing technology needs various types of chemicals for washing
apparels. Denim washing is the aesthetic finishing process given to the denim apparel to
enhance the fabric properties and provides fashion effects. Various chemicals are used in
various washing processes, e.g., bleaches are used in bleach washing process, enzymes are
used in enzyme washing process, pumice stones are used in stone washing process etc.
1.2. Denim
Denim is a yarn-dyed cotton twill fabric, basically warp yarns are dyed with indigo and
weft yarns are white [10]. Indigo is insoluble dye and diffused on yarn surface [11]. Indigo
dye is popular for denim because it washes down easily and clear bright blue shades are
achieved by washing [12]. Today denim has various washing aspects for designs, it can be
stone washed, bleach washed or enzyme washed. The word denim is derived from the French
word ‘Nimes’, the Nimes was the French city where the denim was first produced. The fabric
which was produced in Nimes was called ‘Serge’ in French. Resultant it was called ‘Serge De
Nimes’ means ‘fabric of Nimes,’ later the name was shortened to DENIM.
1.3. Sustainable Design
Sustainability is a vital topic within the design world. Sustainable practices are now
growing in the apparel industry. In the past, apparel designers and merchandisers have
emphasized a product’s functional, aesthetic, and economic aspects during the design process
[13]. With increased consumer interest in the environmental implications of apparel
production, many companies have introduced sustainable practices [14, 15]. Consumers are
also interested to get fashion products [16] which are a challenge to sustainable practices in
the apparel industry.

Figure 1.1. Flow chart of denim manufacturing.
Designers seek to practice environmental responsibility and discover solutions for current
problems [17]. Literature suggests that sustainable practices in the textile and apparel
industries include the use of renewable and non-harmful materials [18-20], applying low-
impact processes [21, 22], the re-cycling of waste materials [23], the eco-friendly, green and
environmental friendly process [24], and fashion product which is one of the biggest barriers
encountered in the apparel industry [25]. Along with increasing global awareness of
environmental problems, consumers’ awareness of sustainability has risen and consumers are
seeking environmentally friendly clothing, and producers are exploring ways to meet these
demands while processing clothing. Sustainable design includes production processes also. In
producing sustainable design, the designers determine the properties of the products with
sustainability [26]. Sustainability requires a delicate balance of choices. Therefore,
sustainable denim designs represent an apparel product which is fashion oriented,
performance based; and environmental friendly. Therefore, sustainable denim apparel refers
to eco-friendly, fashionable, aesthetic, durable and high wear performance apparel, based on
customers’ choice.
Sustainable practices are growing in the apparel washing industry. In denim washing
industry, bleaches are commonly used with other chemicals. Most of the cases, textile and
apparel manufacturers are using traditional hydrogen peroxides and hypochlorite bleaches in
processing textile and denim apparels, which has more or less negative-impact in the
environment. Enzymatic washing and stone-enzyme washing processes are now popular and
increasing its use in textile and apparel washing industry, because it is eco-friendly, support
the green chemistry and safe for the environment.

In the textile and apparel industries, the concepts of sustainable washing for denim
apparel explore to the enzymatic washing and stone-enzyme washing processes which can be
used to develop sustainable denim designs.
1.4. Literature Review
In the last few years, the popularity of denim apparel washing has been increased and
many researchers have investigated the effect of the washing for denim apparels. Some
important works of various washes on denim apparels are presented below.
Enzymatic Treatment in Denim Apparel Washing
The study of enzymatic washing on denim apparel is important for physical, aesthetical
and environmental point of view. Denim apparel manufactures have washed their apparels for
many years with chemicals to achieve a soft-hand as well as desirable washing effects.
Indigo-dyed denim apparel is the most popular for youth [27]. Therefore, the properties of
denim apparels have been widely studied due to its fundamental importance and its many
applications in current fashion trends. The existing literature in this domain has focused
considerable attention with enzymatic washing for denim apparels. The use of
environmentally friendly, nontoxic, fully biodegradable enzymes have been using in the
modern textile wet process industries for decades. Enzymes are produced by living organism
and one kind of protein that is obtained from fermentations method from naturally existing
bacteria and fungi and attack to a specific molecular group. Structurally, enzyme is a
biological polymer. Cellulases are enzymes and commonly used in textile industry.
According to their amino acid sequences, it consists of either a catalytic domain (CD), or a
cellulose-binding domain (CBD) or both domains [28]. Most of the cellulases used in the
denim washing are fungal (with a CBD of family I, cellulose-binding domain) [29]. Cavaco-
Paulo et al. [30] reported that the cellulases used in the denim washing industry have CBDs
from family I (30-36 amino acids, i.e., fungal cellulases from Trichoderma ressei and
Humicola insolens), whereas CBDs of cellumonas fimi bacteria belong to family II (103-146
amino acids). Commercially, there are mainly two kinds of cellulase being used for denim
washing, namely acid cellulose and neutral cellulase. Acid cellulases are more aggressive on
cotton [31]. Cellulase hydrolyses the cellulose, yielding long chain cellulose polymer to a
short-chain polysaccharides and glucose. The enzymatic action also loosens the indigo dye,
which is more easily removed by the mechanical abrasion of rotating cylinder washing
machine. Cellulases are inducible enzymes synthesized only in the presence of cellulosic
materials or other appropriate inducers [32-36]. Today approximately 80% denim apparels are
treated with cellulase enzymes [37]. Cavaco-Paulo [38] reported that desizing with amylases
was the first applications of enzymes in textile industry [38]. Enzymatic treatment with
amylase enzymes has replaced the harsh processes since the beginning of the last century
[39]. Many commercial α-amylases are available now and it is estimated that approximately
15% of all commercial textile enzymes are used in desizing processes [40]. In order to
prevent the yarn breaking during weaving, warp yarns are sized with starch and its
derivatives. The starch is a natural, biodegradable, and a mixture of two polysaccharides,
amylase and amylopectin consisting mainly of α-1, 4-linked glucose units [41].

Cavaco-Paulo et al. [30, 42] carried out a series of studies to investigate the washing
effects of denim garments by cellulase treatment. From their studies reported that cellulases
are most successful in producing the stone-washed look denim apparels with modified
appearance. Aged/old looked denim with cellulase is the non-homogeneous removal of dye,
giving the fashionable contrast of various blue shades. Cavaco-Paulo [43] reported that
cellulases are always applied in washing processes where strong mechanical action on the
fabric is provided. As a result, the weight and strength loss increased. Nevell [44] reported
that, the primary wall of cotton contains waxes, proteins, lipids, pectins, organic acids and
noncellulosic polysaccharides constituting up to 10% of the total fiber weight and by washing
the fiber loss weight mostly. The secondary wall contains a mature fiber and consists almost
entirely of fibrils of cellulose arranged spirally around the fiber axis [45] and by enzymatic
washing the fibrils of cellulose in secondary wall is slightly disoriented and partly damaged
and strength is lost and softens apparels are produced.
Cavaco-Paulo et al. [30] explained that the slow kinetics of enzymatic degradation of
crystalline cellulose improves fabric and fiber properties (remove fuzz fibers) without
excessive damage. Mori et al. [46] showed that cellulase treatment improves the handle of
cotton fabric. They found that the primary wall of the cotton fiber is eliminated in the initial
step of hydrolysis; as a result a reduction in the fineness of the cotton fibers takes place. They
also suggested that enzymatic hydrolysis occurs in the secondary wall of the cotton fibers,
even during the initial step of hydrolysis so that cotton fabric becomes soft and loses strength.
Also, Walker and Wilson [47], Pedersen et al. [48], Duran and Marcela [5] studied cellulase
on cotton and found that cellulase improves fabric hand and enhance aesthetic properties.
Similar, many studies of cellulase applications on textiles and the properties of cotton fabrics
were reported by Buschle-Diller et al. [49] and Radhakrishnaiah et al. [50]. Heikinheimo et al.
[8] reported that cellulases are introduced to replace aggressive chlorine bleach in textile
industry.
Pumice Stone in Denim Apparel Washing
The fundamental problem of enzyme in denim wash has received considerable attention
from researchers. Such a problem is usually overcome by stone wash. A few but some
important studies of the stone washes are given below.
Pumice stone is generally used on the denim apparel to achieve a soft handle as well as a
desirable bleached-out character. In denim washing, pumice stones are mixed with enzymatic
processes to obtain irregular, nice stone-wash look effects. The surface of pumice stone is
rough, irregular, light weight and perforated and floats on water during washing in machine.
The use of stone makes brushing action on the apparel surface; as a result irregular color
fading effect is produced rapidly. But stone wash causes processing and equipment problems.
The main disadvantages of stone washing are the difficulty of removing residual pumice from
processed clothing items and the damage to the equipment by the overload of tumbling stones
[51]. In spite of these disadvantages, pumice stone is still used in denim washing industries
and researchers using certain researches with pumice stones [52]. Pumice stones combined
with cellulases cause the desired fading and softening of the apparel [53]. They concluded
that mechanical action by pumice stone opens the outermost layers in secondary cell of
cellulosic crystals, thus increasing the part of the cellulose accessible to enzymes and
enhancing enzymatic removal of the dye in presence of pumice stone. Again, pumice stone
with cellulases reduces time in washing process [54].

High levels of mechanical friction with pumice stone will produce strong mechanical
abrasion of yarn surfaces, releasing the indigo dye quickly and produced the stone-wash
effect [30, 42]. Feki et al. [55] examined the effect of stone-washing on denim garments and
evaluated compressibility, bending rigidity, shear rigidity and breaking work, but they did not
worked on the other properties like water absorption, elongation at break, tensile strength and
color fading.
1.5. Motivation
From the literature review it is clear that very little investigational study have been
carried out on the effect of chemicals in denim apparel washing. The study of denim apparel
washing with sustainable designs is important for the apparel designers and manufacturers
and is the new challenge in the fast changing current trends. The consumer’s has interest now
in eco-fashion. To apply a system as an effective wash method for denim with chemicals is
important. Thus to produce specific washing effect, considering sustainability, the analysis of
the effect of parameters in denim washing is necessary. Previously, majority of the studies on
denim apparels were carried out with dry processes. Thus, so far, none have conducted
studies involving the effect of chemical wash for producing sustainable denim apparels,
although denim is very popular apparel. Therefore, from the buyer’s point of view, consumers
are concern now on sustainable denim designs, which forms the basis of the motivation
behind the present study.
1.6. Present Problems
Previously no work has been reported on denim apparel washing considering
sustainability. The present study is an investigation with the best value for the purpose of
sustainable designs production. In the present investigation, two different types of washes are
considered. One is cellulase washing with various concentrations, temperatures and times in a
fixed amount of washing liquor. Second one is cellulase with pumice stone in denim garment
washing with various concentrations of pumice stones, temperatures and times. The proposed
studies are expected to reveal that the denim performance in such washings are very much
important from those studied in the above literature and it will therefore prove useful from the
manufacturer’s and designer’s point of view in choosing the best that suit them.
1.7. Objectives
The aim of this work was to define the optimum conditions for washing of denim ready-
made apparels in order to achieve the desired finishing effects with minimum negative
impacts in environment and properties. However, the specific aims of the study were:
● To investigate the chemical effects and the mechanisms of these effects on denim
apparel washing.
● To study the effects of different cellulases on denim apparel properties.

● To describe how to produce a sustainable denim apparel.
● To develop a dynamic washing method for denim apparels.
● To carry out the validation of the present wash methods for denim washing includes
enzyme wash, and stone-enzyme wash.
To find out the best washing conditions with specifications for washing denim apparel
with enzyme and /or stone-enzyme that will develop existing method and new dynamic
method will be introduced.
2. EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
2.1. Materials
The denim apparel and chemicals used in these experiments are listed as:
2.1.1. Denim Apparel
Fabric: All fabric used in this investigation was of 100% cotton twill weave (3/1 LHT.
381 g/m2
) denim, manufactured in a Textile mill in Bangladesh.
Apparel: Denim apparels (trouser) were manufactured using the stated denim fabric. The
denim apparel used in these experiments is shown in Figure 2.1 and a summary of the denim
fabric properties is listed in Table 2.1.
Figure 2.1. A portion of denim apparel used.

Table 2.1. Properties of the denim fabric used
Property Denim fabric
Material 100% Cotton
Warp count, weft count 10 Ne, 9 Ne
EPI, PPI 70, 42
Weight (g/m2
) 381
Weave 3/1 LHT
Type of dyestuff Indigo
Tensile strength-warp (kg-f) 246
Tensile strength-weft (kg-f) 137
Elongation-warp (%) 24
Elongation-weft (%) 16
Dimensional stability (%) 2.25
Table 2.2. Properties of the pumice stone used
Property Specifications
Material /composition
SiO2 73.14%, Al2O3 12.36%, Fe2O3 1.38%, Na2O 3.79%, K2O 2.7%,
MgO 0.13%, CaO 0.88%, FeO 0.66%, TiO2 0.1%, others-rest
Size (cm) 4-5
Surface Rough
Color White-slightly
Nature Perforated, water floated
Weight (g/pc) Light (10-12)
Source Volcanic explosion
Origin Turkey
2.1.2. Cellulase Enzyme
Two different natures of cellulase enzymes, acid cellulase (Genzyme SL, Multichemi
Ltd, Sri Lanka) and neutral cellulase (Bactosol JCP, Clariant Ltd, Swizerland) were used. In
addition, mixtures of acid and neutral cellulases 50/50 were also used. The cellulases are bio-
chemical substance that behaves as a catalyst toward specific reactions. According to
manufacturer, the activity of enzymes; acid enzyme- pH 4.5-5.5, temp 45-650
C; neutral
enzyme- pH 6.0-7.0, temp 40-550
C. In washing, the enzymes break some of the fibers on the
surface and hence give the fabric a soft, faded and old look effect. The cellulose loosens the
indigo dye and fading effect is produced rapidly during washing.
2.1.3. Pumice Stone
Fresh pumice stones were used for the treatments of stone-enzyme washing. The stones
are available in three sizes i.e., small (2-3 cm), medium (4-5 cm) and large (5-7 cm). Medium
size stone was used for the experiments. These stones are perforated, rough surface, light
weight and floats on water. The pumice stone used in these experiments is shown in Figure
2.2. A summary of the pumice stone properties is listed in Table 2.2.

Figure 2.2. Pumice stone used in the experiments.
2.2. Methods
Following processes have been used to perform washing. These are as follows –
2.2.1. Desizing
The desizing was conducted in liquor containing Hostapur WCTH 0.6 g/L (a detergent,
BASF, Germany), Luzyme FR-HP 1.2 g/L (a desizing agent, BASF, Germany), Antistain-
LP30 0.4 g/L (an anti-back staining agent, GDS, India) and material to liquor ratio of 1:10 in
an industrial horizontal sample washing machine (model-NS 2205, Ngai Shing, Hong Kong)
at temperature 60°C for 20 min in order to remove the size materials of warp yarns which was
applied in fabric manufacturing to reduce yarn breakage.
After that washed with hot water at 70°C, followed by cold water wash at 25°C.
2.2.2. Washing
Desized denim trousers were treated with chemicals (depends on wash type) in a sample
washing machine at different concentrations of chemicals, temperatures and times using the
enzyme and stone-enzyme washing methods followed by the standard washing procedure. All
treatments were involved in a rotary cylindrical washing machine at 30 rpm.
2.2.3. Hydro-Extracting Process
Chemically processed denim trousers were squeezed in a laboratory scale hydro-extractor
machine (Roaches, England) to remove excess water from the apparels at 200 rpm for 4 min.
The hydro-extracting machine is shown in Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.3. Industrial sample washing machine.
Figure 2.4. The hydro-extracting machine.
2.2.4. Drying Process
The hydro-extracted denim trousers were dried in a steam tumble drier (Opti-Dry,
England) at 75°C for 40 min. Treated denim apparels were then evaluated by characterizing
of their physical and mechanical properties. The drying machine is shown in Figure 2.5.

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