This document summarizes a review study on tuberculosis conducted by Bashar M. Khazaal. It defines tuberculosis as an infectious disease caused by mycobacterium tuberculosis, which usually involves the lungs but can spread to other parts of the body. Risk factors, pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, diagnostic methods, complications, management, and drug-resistant forms like MDR-TB and XDR-TB are described. Diagnostic tests discussed include tuberculin skin test, chest X-ray, bacteriological examination, drug susceptibility testing using phenotypic and molecular methods, Quantiferon-TB, T-Spot TB, and PCR. Treatment involves a multi-drug regimen over several months and directly observed therapy to prevent drug resistance
All you need to know about Tuberculosis (TB)GLRA India
The core activity of GLRA is to cure people affected by leprosy, tuberculosis and to address physical disabilities.
In this presentation, GLRA describes
WHAT WE NEED TO KNOW ABOUT TUBERCULOSIS?
All you need to know about Tuberculosis (TB)GLRA India
The core activity of GLRA is to cure people affected by leprosy, tuberculosis and to address physical disabilities.
In this presentation, GLRA describes
WHAT WE NEED TO KNOW ABOUT TUBERCULOSIS?
India is the highest TB burden country in the world & accounts for nearly 1/5th (20 per cent) of global burden of tuberculosis, 2/3rd of cases in SEAR. Every year approximately 1.8 million persons develop tuberculosis, of which about 0.8 million are new smear positive highly'- infectious cases.Annual risk of becoming infected with TB is 1.5 % and once infected there is 10 % life-time risk of developing TB disease
Pulmonary TB is a bacterial infection of the lungs that can cause a range of symptoms, including chest pain, breathlessness, and severe coughing. Pulmonary TB can be life-threatening if a person does not receive treatment. People with active TB can spread the bacteria through the air.
Epidemiology & Control measures for Tuberculosis. AB Rajar
n this Lecture I tried my best to include all essential features about the TB disease. I hope that this will help to undergraduate Medical students for better understanding the Disease.
India is the highest TB burden country in the world & accounts for nearly 1/5th (20 per cent) of global burden of tuberculosis, 2/3rd of cases in SEAR. Every year approximately 1.8 million persons develop tuberculosis, of which about 0.8 million are new smear positive highly'- infectious cases.Annual risk of becoming infected with TB is 1.5 % and once infected there is 10 % life-time risk of developing TB disease
Pulmonary TB is a bacterial infection of the lungs that can cause a range of symptoms, including chest pain, breathlessness, and severe coughing. Pulmonary TB can be life-threatening if a person does not receive treatment. People with active TB can spread the bacteria through the air.
Epidemiology & Control measures for Tuberculosis. AB Rajar
n this Lecture I tried my best to include all essential features about the TB disease. I hope that this will help to undergraduate Medical students for better understanding the Disease.
Tuberculosis (TB) is caused by bacteria (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) that most often affect the lungs. Tuberculosis is curable and preventable.
TB is spread from person to person through the air. When people with lung TB cough, sneeze or spit, they propel the TB germs into the air. A person needs to inhale only a few of these germs to become infected.
The causative agent is Mycobacterium tuberculosis (also known as the tubercle bacillus).
Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease that primarily affects the lung parenchyma. The primary infection usually involves the middle or lower lung area.
It is also may be transmitted to other parts of the body, including the Meninges, kidneys, bone, joints, pericardium, GI tract and lymph nodes And this condition known as Extra pulmonary TB.
The disease also can affects animals such as cattle, this is known as “bovine tuberculosis” which may sometimes be transmitted to man.The primary infectious agent, “ M.Tuberculosis”, is an acid – fast aerobic (AFB) rod that grows slowly and is sensitive to heat and ultraviolet light.
Explore the intricate world of Tuberculosis with this comprehensive PowerPoint presentation. Uncover its origins, transmission, symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, and preventive measures. Engage your audience with informative visuals and charts, shedding light on the global impact of TB. Equip your audience with knowledge to raise awareness and foster a proactive approach towards combating this infectious disease.
The bacteria that cause tuberculosis (TB) can develop resistance to the antimicrobial drugs used to cure the disease. Multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB) is TB that does not respond to at least isoniazid and rifampicin, the 2 most powerful anti-TB drugs.
The 2 reasons why multidrug resistance continues to emerge and spread are mismanagement of TB treatment and person-to-person transmission. Most people with TB are cured by a strictly followed, 6-month drug regimen that is provided to patients with support and supervision. Inappropriate or incorrect use of antimicrobial drugs, or use of ineffective formulations of drugs (such as use of single drugs, poor quality medicines or bad storage conditions), and premature treatment interruption can cause drug resistance, which can then be transmitted, especially in crowded settings such as prisons and hospitals.
In some countries, it is becoming increasingly difficult to treat MDR-TB. Treatment options are limited and expensive, recommended medicines are not always available, and patients experience many adverse effects from the drugs. In some cases even more severe drug-resistant TB may develop. Extensively drug-resistant TB, XDR-TB, is a form of multidrug-resistant TB with additional resistance to more anti-TB drugs that therefore responds to even fewer available medicines. It has been reported in 117 countries worldwide.
Drug resistance can be detected using special laboratory tests which test the bacteria for sensitivity to the drugs or detect resistance patterns. These tests can be molecular in type (such as Xpert MTB/RIF) or else culture-based. Molecular techniques can provide results within hours and have been successfully implemented even in low resource settings.
New WHO recommendations aim to speed up detection and improve treatment outcomes for MDR-TB through use of a novel rapid diagnostic test and a shorter, cheaper treatment regimen. At less than US$ 1000 per patient, the new treatment regimen can be completed in 9–12 months. Not only is it less expensive than current regimens, but it is also expected to improve outcomes and potentially decrease deaths due to better adherence to treatment and reduced loss to follow-up.
Solutions to control drug-resistant TB are to:
cure the TB patient the first time around
provide access to diagnosis
ensure adequate infection control in facilities where patients are treated
ensure the appropriate use of recommended second-line drugs.
In 2015, an estimated 480 000 people worldwide developed MDR-TB, and an additional 100 000 people with rifampicin-resistant TB were also newly eligible for MDR-TB treatment. India, China, and the Russian Federation accounted for 45% of the 580 000 cases. It is estimated that about 9.5% of these cases were XDR-TB.
this presentation is based on national health program in india in relation to tuberculosis and malaria as these are mostly occuring disease in india so national program are organised to irradicate the spread of vector borne disease by various methods like controlling the vector (mosquitos) from spreading
role of community pharmacist in educating and monitoring of patients for infection and counselling and educating them regarding the control of malaria and tb.
MDR in Mycobacterium species by Parth AgarwalParth Agarwal
Introduction to MDR and MDR-TB. Types of MDR, History and Diagnostic methods, Antibiotics used and their Mechanism, Mechanism of resistance towards Antibiotics by the bacteria and Future Technologies
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
2. Objectives:
• What are Tuberculosis??.
• What are the risk factors, etiology, pathophysiology and clinical
manifestations of TB ??.
• What are the diagnostic methods for TB ??.
• What are the complications and management of TB ??.
• What are Multi drug resistance TB ??.
3. Tuberculosis
• It is an infectious disease caused by mycobacterium
tuberculosis.
• Usually involves the lungs, but can involve other body parts.
• Very common cause of death from infectious diseases in the
world.
4. Tuberculosis
Risk factors :
Immuno-suppressed patients (e.g., HIV, Long term
Corticosteroids use)
Older adult in long term facilities ( e.g. jails, elderly homes)
IV injecting drug users
Persons at poverty level, with poor access to health care
services, homeless.
Health care workers in increased exposure to TB.
5. TB: Pathophysiology
• M. tuberculosis is a gram-positive, acid-fast bacillus.
• It spreads from person to person via airborne droplets produced
while talking or coughing.
• Brief exposure to tubercle bacilli rarely causes infection.
• TB is not usually highly infectious, transmission requires frequent,
close, or prolonged exposure
6. Tuberculosis: Pathophysiology
•
•
The very small droplets (1-5 µm) contain M. tuberculosis, remains
airborne indoors from minutes to hours.
When inhaled; they are lodged into the bronchioles and alveolus.
•
Factors that influence the likelihood of transmission
1.
2.
3.
4.
Number of organisms expelled into air
Concentration of organisms.
Length of time of exposure
Immune system of the exposed person
7. Tuberculosis:
Pathophysiology
•
•
-
M. tuberculosis replicates slowly over time.
It travels through lymphatic system to find a suitable
environment for growth primarily in the:
Upper lobes of the lungs
Kidneys
Epiphyses of the bones
Cerebral cortex
Adrenal glands
8. Tuberculosis: classifications
Latent TB: the bacteria
is inhaled , but there is
an active immune
system, the bacteria will
be capsulated for life,
and become inactive,
preventing the disease
to progress, so they are
not sick or showing any
symptoms, and they
cannot spread the
germs.
Active TB: if the initial
response of the immune
system was not
adequate, the body can
not maintain control of
the organism, and it
develops into infection,
so active bacteria are
multiplying and causing
clinical active disease.
9. Tuberculosis: clinical
manifestation
• Latent TB: usually asymptomatic, but have a positive
TST.
• Active TB: fatigue, malaise, anorexia, unexplained
weight loss, low-grade fevers, and night sweats.
• Frequent cough, produce mucoid or mucopurulent
sputum
• Hemoptysis is usually seen with more advanced cases.
• Dyspnea is unusual
• Acute exacerbations: high fever, chills, general flu-like
symptoms pleurisy pain and productive cough.
10. Tuberculosis: Diagnostic
studies
1. Tuberculin skin test (TST): Mantoux test: PPD 0.1 ml
is injected ID on the dorsal aspect of the forearm, and
then read by inspection palpation after 48-72 hour, for
presence or absence of indurations
2. Chest X-ray: presence of upper lob infiltrates, &
lymph nodes involvements ( but can not be
confirmative alone for TB)
3. Bacteriologic and other studies : microscopic
examination of stained sputum smear of acid-fast
bacillus( AFB testing).
- Other samples of suspected infected sites can be
taken as well. e.g.: gastric wash, CSF sample, fluids
from an effusion. Löwenstein‒Jensen medium
culturing.
11. Table 1. Components of Löwenstein‒Jensen medium
Components
measures
2.4 g
Monopotassium dihydrophosphate (KH2PO4), anhydrous
Magnesium sulfate (MgSO4 ·7H2O)
Magnesium citrate
L-Asparagine
Distilled water up to
Glycerol (ml) or pyruvatea (g)
Egg homogenate
Malachite green (2%)
pH (about)
0.24 g
0.6 g
3.6 g
600 ml
12 ml or 7.2 g
1000 ml
20 ml
6.8
12.
13. Drug susceptibility testing
Drug susceptibility testing means testing to find out
which drugs the TB bacteria in a person are sensitive to,
and therefore whether the person has got drug resistant
TB. It is essential that if a person might possibly
have drug resistant TB, that this is discovered as soon as
possible, in order that the patient can be provided with
effective TB treatment. Historically drug susceptibility
testing has needed specific laboratory facilities and
trained personnel, and in addition has been a very
lengthy process.
14. Different types of drug susceptibility tests
• Phenotypic drug susceptibility tests
Conventionally TB drug susceptibility testing has been
phenotypic, involving the culturing of M. tuberculosis in the
presence of anti TB drugs in order to detect growth (indicating
drug resistance) or inhibition of drug (indicating drug
susceptibility).
15. • Molecular methods of drug susceptibility testing
Since resistance arises from genetic mutations, another
approach is to detect the mutations themselves. Many
mutations associated with resistance have been identified and
molecular tests to detect them have been developed. The
advantages of molecular methods of drug susceptibility
testing include rapid turnaround times, but the disadvantages
include a low sensitivity for some compounds, and a major
issue is cost.
16. 4. QuantiFERON-TB
•Originally developed in Australia to test cattle for M. bovis
infection
•Measures IFN-γ in stimulated whole blood.
•1st generation used purified protein derivative (PPD)
•2nd generation (QFT-Gold) uses ESAT-6 and CFP-10
•3rd generation (QFT-Gold in tube) uses ESAT-6, CFP-10 and
TB 7.7
17. • How does QuantiFERON-TB Gold In-Tube work?
The QFT-G is an indirect test for M. tuberculosis infection that is
based on measurement of a cell-mediated immune response.
A cocktail of 3 mycobacterial proteins (ESAT-6, CFP-10, and TB
7.7) stimulate the patient's T-cells in vitro to release
interferon-gamma, which is then measured using ELISA
technology.
18. BCG strains and the majority of other non-tuberculosis
mycobacteria do not harbor ESAT-6, CFP-10, and TB 7.7 proteins;
thus, patients either vaccinated with BCG or infected with most
environmental mycobacteria should test negative.
19. 5. T – spot TB test
measure a person’s immune reactivity to M. tuberculosis.
White blood cells from most persons that have been infected
with M. tuberculosis will release interferon-gamma (IFN-g) when
mixed with antigens (substances that can produce an immune
response) derived from M. tuberculosis.
To conduct the tests, fresh blood samples are mixed with
antigens and controls. The antigens, testing methods, and
interpretation criteria for QuantiFERON-TB differ (see Table 2).
20. Table2: Differences in Currently Available
QuantiFERON-TB
QuantiFERON-TB
Initial Process
T-Spot
Process whole blood Process peripheral blood
within 16 hours
mononuclear cells (PBMCs) within 8
hours.
M. tuberculosis Antigen Single mixture of
Separate mixtures of synthetic
synthetic peptides
peptides representing ESAT-6 & CFPrepresenting ESAT-6, 10
CFP-10 & TB7.7.
Measurement
IFN-g concentration
Number of IFN-g producing cells
(spots)
Possible Results
Positive, negative,
indeterminate
Positive, negative, indeterminate,
borderline
21. 6. PCR
Other mycobacteria are also acid-fast. If the smear is
positive, PCR or gene probe tests can distinguish M.
tuberculosis from other mycobacteria.
22. Tuberculosis: complications
1. Miliary TB: M.O can invade blood stream, & involve
many organs. it can be due to a primary disease, or
activation of LTB. patient either acutely ill with fever,
dyspnea and cyanosis, or chronically ill with weight loss,
fever, GI manifestations; hepatomegally ,
spleenomegally.
2. Pleural effusion & Empyema: effusion is caused by
bacteria in the pleural space. Empyema is less common.
3. Tuberculosis pneumonia: acute pneumonia
4. Other organ involvement: CNS; with inflammation of the
meninges, joints, bone, kidneys adrenal glands, LN, and
23. Tuberculosis: management
• Most patients can be treated on outpatient basis
• Hospitalization maybe needed for the severely ill
patients
• Mainstay (basis) is drug therapy
• Monitoring for complications is a key for successful
treatment
24. Tuberculosis: drug therapy
• Initial phase treatment: 4 drugs for 6 months
( isoniazid, rifampin, pyrazinamide, and ethambutol).
• Nursing consideration: pregnancy, liver damage,
and alcoholism should be kept under monitoring.
• DOT( directly observed therapy): is a new approach
to observe patients taking their medications,
especially useful for patients who might be having
compliance problems.
25. Tuberculosis: drug therapy
• In LTBI: drug therapy can be initiated to prevent it
from becoming active TB.
• Usually treatment is less expensive and of less
duration if started as preventive measure.
• In general it is isoniazid, and can be administered
once daily from 6-9 months .
26. WHAT ARE MDR-TB, XDR-TB AND RR-TB ?
TB organisms resistant to the antibiotics used in its treatment are
widespread and occur in all countries surveyed. Drug resistance
emerges as a result of inadequate treatment and once TB organisms
acquire resistance they can spread from person to person in the
same way as drug-sensitive TB.
• Multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB) is caused by organisms that
are resistant to at least the two most effective anti-TB drugs,
isoniazid and rifampicin.
• Extensively drug-resistant TB (XDR-TB) is a form of TB caused
by organisms that are resistant to isoniazid and rifampicin (i.e.
MDR-TB) as well as any fluoroquinolone and any of the second–line
anti-TB injectable drugs (amikacin, kanamycin or capreomycin).
• Rifampicin-resistant TB (RR-TB) is caused by organisms that
are resistant to rifampicin, with or without resistance to other
drugs. Both MDR-TB and XDR-TB are forms of RR-TB.
• These forms of TB do not respond to the standard six month
treatment with first-line anti-TB drugs and can take two years or
more to treat with drugs that are less effective, more toxic and
more expensive.
27. Tuberculosis: vaccine
• Bacille Calmette-Guerin (BCG): is a live attenuated
strain of mycobacterium bovis. It is given in parts of
the world where prevalence is high, or high risk of
exposure like health care workers.
• Other tuberculosis vaccines in development like
MVA85A, rBCG30, 72F fusion protein, ESAT6-Ag85b
fusion protein
* AIDS is the first cause of death due to infectious diseases
*TB is more commonly spread by repeated close contact* with infected person.
Within 6 inches of the person's mouth
2. Small paces with limited ventilation would mean higher concentration. ( small room Vs big hall).
The epiphysis is the rounded end of a long bone, at its joint with adjacent bone(s).
Certain individuals are at a higher risk of active disease (immuno-suppressed, or DM), there Is a good chance that they will develop into active TB, hint: why treatment in such conditions is prescribed
Reactivation of the LTBI can occur if the host’s defense mechanism become impaired such as decreased resistance found in older adult.
a yellow-greenish (mucopurulent)
a white, milky, or opaque (mucoid)
HIV infected people: atypical physical exam and CXR; fever, cough, weight loss attributed to pneummocystis jiroveci pneumonia (PCP), or due to any other opportunistic diseases. Also cancer patients and any Immunocompromised patients, may suffer from opportunistic diseases , and any respiratory manifestations should be investigated immediately for those group of patients.
An opportunistic infection is an infection caused by particularly opportunistic pathogens—those that take advantage of certain situations. usually do not cause disease in a healthy host, one with a healthy immune system. A compromised immune system, however, presents an "opportunity" for the pathogen to infect.
Purified protein derivative
**this x ray can be seen in other disease as well, so an Xray alone is not enough to confirm TB diagnosis
3-consecutive specimen can be collected on different days, sent for smear and culture( it can take up to 8 weeks for confirmative results of growth).
*triggering an inflammatory reaction, producing exudates (Protein rich fluid).
Empyema can occur form larger number of tubercular organisms in pleura.
3- resulting form TB discharged from granulomas into lungs and lymph nodes
* We do one as baseline when we start the treatment, and continue to do it once every month for monitoring purposes
Mycobacterium bovis is a slow-growing (16 to 20 hour generation time), aerobic bacterium and the causative agent of tuberculosis in cattle (Cow) .