The document discusses several approaches to system development including the waterfall model, prototyping model, incremental model, and spiral model. The waterfall model involves sequential phases from requirements analysis to maintenance. The prototyping model develops initial prototypes to refine user requirements, while the incremental model delivers software in iterations. The spiral model combines elements of waterfall and prototyping, with risk analysis and evaluation at each phase.

1. SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT
• It includes those activities that go into producing an IS solution to
organizational problems
• It consists of two phases:
System Analysis- includes analysis of a problem which is to be
solved. It is a phase of system development process in which the
system analyst determines that a new system should accomplish
System Design –provides details of how a system will meet the
information requirements as determined by the system
analyst/system development team.

2. SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT APPROACHES
1.WATERFALL MODEL/SDLC MODEL
Project definition: Recognition of need
• Whether or not the organization has a problem and whether or
not it can be solved by launching a new system
• Preliminary survey is needed to see whether the alternative
system can solve the problem
• All bottlenecks, inefficient existing procedures and the parts
which needs computerization
• If problem is serious analyst is called, who prepares a
statement specifying the scope and causes of a problem

3. 2.SYSTEM ANALYSIS:
• Analysis of problem of existing system is undertaken and
how the new system can overcome it.
• It is detailed study of various operations performed b a
system and their relationship within and outside the system.
• Data is collected regarding the above files, decision points
,transactions handled by an existing system
• Various tools used are interviews, questionnaires, in site
observation etc
• Once analysis is done analyst has a firm understanding of
what can be done to overcome various problems

4. 3.SYSTEM DESIGN
• Most creative and challenging phase
• It describes how the chosen system will be developed
• It prescribes the technical specifications, that are to be
applied
• It also includes construction of programs and their testing
Steps involved are:
• To determine how input is to be produced
• It involves designing of input data and database that meets
the output requirements
• Data processing phase is handled through program
construction & testing, including the list of programs
needed to meet systems objectives

5. 4.IMPLEMENTATION
• Is less creative
• Related to user training, site preparation and file conversion
5.POST IMPLEMENTATION
• After the system is installed
• It consists of system evaluation and
• EVALUATION: analysis of how the new system is achieving its
objectives
• MAINTAINENCE: involves maintaining the hardware ,software and
other devices
• Also includes enhancing the capacity of the present system either by
updating hardware, software or another balancing devices

7. ADVANTAGES OF SDLC
• Requirements can be expressed in structured form so SDLC
provides chronological stages
• Project scheduling and its execution can be determined well in
advance
• Once a system is developed and is in place, enhancement in its
capacity can be achieved on continuous basis, in a limited
extent without disturbing the system

8. LIMITATIONS
• Is ill-suited for developing decision oriented systems
• Quite rigid and inflexible
• Is very resource intensive
• Real projects rarely follow the sequential flow that the
model proposes.
• Developing a system using the Waterfall Model can be a
long, painstaking process that does not yield a working
version of the system until late in the process

9. PROTOTYPE MODEL
• The Prototyping Model was developed on the assumption that
it is often difficult to know all of your requirements at the
beginning of a project
• In this approach, a prototype of the system is developed.
• Prototype is a comprehensive system and does not include all
the requirements of the user
• Once it becomes operational, it is further refined until it
confirms users requirements
• Used where identification of requirements is difficult and may
change during the development process

10. STEPS:
• Identification of basic requirements
• Developing the initial prototype
• Using the initial prototype
• Redefining and enhancing the prototype

11. Identification of basic information
requirements
Developing the initial
prototype
Using the initial
prototype
Operational
prototype
If not accepted
Working
prototype
Revising and
enhancing working
prototype
If accepted
If accepted

12. ADVANTAGES
• In a situation where there is uncertainty about information
requirements or design solution
• Morale and satisfaction of users remain high
• System can be developed easily

13. LIMITATIONS
• Large systems must be divided so that prototype can be
developed
• May encourage the developers to move to quickly
• Final steps of polishing may not be carried out
• Developers assume testing could be handled by end-users.

14. Incremental Model
• The problems with the Waterfall Model created a demand for
a new method of developing systems which could provide
faster results, require less up-front information, and offer
greater flexibility.
• With Iterative Development, the project is divided into small
parts. This allows the development team to demonstrate results
earlier on in the process and obtain valuable feedback from
system users
• The incremental model is an intuitive approach to the waterfall
model. Multiple development cycles take place here, making
the life cycle a “multi-waterfall” cycle. Cycles are divided up
into smaller, more easily managed iterations

15. • A working version of software is produced during the first
iteration, so you have working software early on during the
software life cycle.
• the software products which are produced at the end of each
step (or series of steps) can go into production immediately
as incremental releases.
• It is a popular model software evolution used by many
commercial software companies and system vendor.
Incremental software development model may be applicable
to projects where:
- Software Requirements are well defined
- The basic software functionality are required early

17. Advantages
• Generates working software quickly and early during the
software life cycle.
• More flexible – less costly to change scope and requirements.
• Easier to test and debug during a smaller iteration.
• Easier to manage risk because risky pieces are identified and
handled during its iteration.
• Each iteration is an easily managed milestone.
Disadvantages
• Each phase of an iteration is rigid and do not overlap each
other.
• Problems may arise pertaining to system architecture because
not all requirements are gathered up front for the entire
software life cycle.

18. Spiral Model
• The Spiral Model was designed to include the best features
from the Waterfall and Prototyping models, and introduces a
new component - risk-assessment
• The term “spiral” is used to describe the process that is
followed as the development of the system takes place
• Similar to the Prototyping Model, an initial version of the
system is developed, and then repetitively modified based on
input received from customer evaluations.
• Unlike the Prototyping Model, however, the development of
each version of the system is carefully designed using the
steps involved in the Waterfall Model.
• With each iteration around the spiral (beginning at the center
and working outward), progressively more complete versions
of the system are built.

19. • The spiral model has four phases: Planning, Risk Analysis,
Engineering and Evaluation.
• Requirements are gathered during the planning phase.
• In the risk analysis phase, a process is undertaken to identify
risk and alternate solutions. A prototype is produced at the
end of the risk analysis phase.
• Software is produced in the engineering phase, along with
testing at the end of the phase.
• The evaluation phase allows the customer to evaluate the
output of the project to date before the project continues to the
next spiral.

21. Advantages
• High amount of risk analysis
• Good for large and mission-critical projects.
• Software is produced early in the software life cycle.
Disadvantages
• Can be a costly model to use.
• Risk analysis requires highly specific expertise.
• Project’s success is highly dependent on the risk analysis
phase.
• Doesn’t work well for smaller projects.

22. SYSTEM ANALYSIS
The basic objective of System analysis is to determine feasibility
of a system and how it will meet the requirements of the users.
This job is assigned to system analyst
System analysis involves the following aspects of system
development:
• Feasibility study
• Requirement analysis
• Structured analysis

23. FEASIBILITY STUDY
•A process of determining whether a system is appropriate in
the context of organizational resources and constraints and
meets the user requirements.
•Basic objective is to identify whether the proposed system is
feasible and will be more appropriate than the existing system.
•System analyst defines the problems or opportunities
,establishes overall objectives of the system and defines the
scope of the system.
•It covers economic feasibility, technical feasibility ,operational
feasibility and legal feasibility
.

24. • Economic feasibility: involves determination of whether the
given system is economically viable (cost-benefit analysis)
• Technical feasibility: analyses whether the system is
technically viable with the available hardware, software and
technical resources
• Operational / behavioral feasibility: whether the proposed
system will work efficiently with the existing managerial and
organizational framework (resistance from people,
management)
• Legal feasibility: tries to ensure whether the new system meets
the requirements of various IT regulations such as privacy
laws., cyber crime laws, international laws etc.

25. STEPS IN FESIBILITY STUDY
• Constitution of a project team
• Identification of a potential candidate systems
• Identification of characteristics of candidate systems
• Performance and cost evaluation
• Weighing system performance and cost data
• Selection of the best system
• Preparation of feasibility report

26. REQUIREMENT ANALYSIS
Most crucial stage of system analysis in which analysis is done
about who requires what information in what form and when.
It defines the scope of the system and the functions it is
expected to perform.
Tools used are
• Procedures and forms used
• On-site observation
• Interviews
• Questionnaires
• System used in other organizations

27. STRUCTURED ANALYSIS
• It is graphic that presents a picture of what is being specified
and is a conceptually easy to understand
• The process used in structured analysis is partitioned so that a
clear picture of progression from general to specific in the
system flow emerges
• It is logical rather than physical
• Certain tasks that are normally carried out late in the system
development are undertaken at the analysis phase.

28. SYSTEM DESIGN
• This is the most crucial stage of system development
process as the design determines the success or failure of the
system.
• System design involves:
1. Reviewing the system’s informational and functional
requirements and
2. Developing a model of the new system , including logical
and physical specifications of outputs, inputs, processing ,
storage and procedures.
• Logical design: also known as conceptual design , lays out
the components of the system and their relationship to each
other as they appear to users.

29. • It shows what the system will do as opposed to how it is
actually implemented physically.
• It contains input/output specifications ,file specifications and
processing specifications.
• Physical design: also known as detailed design., translates the
abstract logical design into specific technical for the new
system. it contains details of output design, input design, data
storage design, processing design, and procedure design.

30. Documentation
• After completion of system analysis and design ,
documentation is required.
• It describes how an IS works from both, a technical and
end-user standpoint.
• It is a written record of different phases of a system
development and establishes design and performance criteria
for these phases.
• Documentation should be done for all types of personnel
who come in contact with the system. These personnel are :
1. End users
2. Secondary users
3. Computer operating personnel
4. Trainers

31. Methods of documentation
1. Conventional (cookbook)
2. Play script
3. Caption
4. Matrix
5. Flowchart

32. Tools for system analysis and design
• In a system development process, one of the basic objectives
is to complete the development process in as short time as
possible
• For this purpose various methodologies are used.
1. Data flow diagrams
2. Flowchart
3. Structured design
4. Structured programming
5. Object oriented development
6. Computer-aided software engineering

33. SYSTEM TESTING
• If a system is installed without testing , two types of problems
can occur:
• If the system has an error ,it may appear later. The time lag
between the cause and appearance of the problem may
enhance correction time
• The system errors may effect files and record s in the system
and a small system error may explode into a much larger
problem.
• Testing tries to ensure that the system produces desired
results under known conditions
• Its utility as a user oriented vehicle before implementation

34. STEPS IN TESTING
• F or system testing ,a testing plan showing sequence of testing, time
schedule and personnel involved in testing should be prepared.
After finalizing this plan , the following steps should be followed:
• PROGRAM TESTING : syntax and logical errors
• STRING TESTING : Each program must be tested independently as
well as jointly to ensure that all programs work well jointly
• SYSTEM TESTING: it tests the functioning of the system as a
whole. It includes forced system failure and validation of the entire
system.
• ACCEPTANCE TESING: provides final certification that the
system is ready to be used.

35. SYSTEM IMPLEMENTATION
After the analysis ,design and testing of a system ,it is ready
for implementation and maintenance.
There are basically 3 types:
• Implementation of a computer system to replace a manual
system which requires acquisition of a computer hardware and
software, file conversion, creating accurate files, and user
training.
• Implementation of a new computer system to replace an
existing system like from mainframe to a network of mini
computers.
• Implementation of a modified application to replace an
existing one using the same computer

36. HARDWARE AQUISITION
The type of hardware that is required for implementing a system is
specified in system analysis and design documentation.
After the specifications are made the type of computer may be chosen for
acquisition (main frame, mini computer and micro computer).
HARDWARE EVALUATION
For acquiring a computer hardware two aspects are evaluated:
• Hardware capability
• Vendor capability
Hardware capability :Information is generally collected from different
sources like vendors catalogues, other publications and current users of the
same hardware
A committee is formed which evaluates H/W with the help of certain pre-determined
criteria.
For using these criteria in evaluation three approaches can be adopted:

37. APPROACHES
• Ad hoc approach: least methodological, uses personal opinions, including
biases , not a scientific approach
• Scoring approach: characteristics of each hardware is listed and each one is
given a score in relation to max rating points. The alternative having max
points is selected
• Cost-value approach: monetary value is assigned to different
characteristics of hardware alternatives. The alternative which gives the
highest value in comparison to its price is selected.
Vendor capability :various criteria like delivery time, performance records,
user training and number of hardware installed should be taken into
consideration. Again the same approaches are used.

38. HARDWARE ACQUISITION METHODS
1. Rental directly from the manufacturer:
Is a form of lease by the manufacturer. May be paid monthly or any other
period decided by the manufacturer and the user.
Reasons for preferring rental option are:
• No investment required in procuring the hardware
• It makes it easy to change to other hardware systems (no risk of
technological obsolescence)
• Insurance, maintenance and other expenses are included in rental
charges
• Rental charge is tax deductible
2. Leasing through a third party: the lessor (a leasing company) remains
the owner of the hardware and charges rent from the user.
Advantages are: No fund is required for acquiring hardware system and
the technological risk is borne to the lessor
• Lease charges are generally lower as compared to rental charges for the
same period

39. CONTD..
Limitation are :in the absence of up gradation clause the
user may not be able to exchange the leased system for
another system
If the lease term is terminated, it may involve heavy
financial penalty
3. Outright purchase: assuming all the risks of ownership
including taxes insurance and technical obsolescence
Its advantages are: There is a flexibility of modification of
the hardware system at will.
Tax benefits are available in the form of depreciation

40. SOFTWARE AQUISITION
• SELECTION OF A SYSTEM SOFTWARE
In evaluating the suitability of a system software following factors should
be considered
The type of computer required for using a given system software
The types of applications that can run on a system software
Ease of learning and using a system software
Extent to which multiple users on networks can use the system software
Extent of multitasking capabilities
Reliability of a system software
Cost of installation
• SELECTION OF APPLICATION SOFTWARE
Can be developed in-house or acquired from the market

41. PROCESS OF ACQUIRING HARDWARE
/SOFTWARE
1. Determination of hardware/software required
2. Request for proposal
3. Proposal evaluation
4. Finalization of Hardware/software and vendor
5. Final approval and acquisition

42. INSTALLATION
It involves
1. SITE PREPARATION: Appropriate location must be found
that provides conductive operating environment for the
system with prescribed temperature, humidity, dust control.
• Site layout should be planned
• Air conditioning equipment should be provided
2. EQUIPMENT INSTALLATION
3. EQUIPMENT CHECKUP

43. CONVERSION
It’s a process of changing over from the existing system to the new system
CONVERSION STRATEGIES
1. PARALLEL CONVERSION:
• Possibility of checking new data against new data in order to catch
errors in processing in new system
• Offers a feeling of security to the users
• Incur the cost of running both the systems together virtually doubling
the work load during the conversion process.
• The employees tend to stick to the old system because of their
familiarity with it
• There is a risk of higher resistance
2. DIRECT CONVERSION
• There is no need of using both the systems
• It is a risky process, until the new system has been tested properly in all
respects

44. Contd..
3. MODULAR CONVERSION: building modular prototypes to change
from old system to the new system in a gradual manner
• Each module is thoroughly tested before being used and users become
familiar with each module as it becomes operational
• Sometimes prototypes do not work in real operating conditions with the
same efficiency as these would have worked during the testing time
4. PHASED CONVERSION: old system is converted into a new in phases
• This phasing might be function wise or unit wise
• New system can be tested at a small area and when it is successful it can
be applied to other areas. This reduces the burden of errors caused.
• If all the units of an organization are not similar the system working
efficiently in one unit may not function with same efficiency in a u it
which is different

45. ACTIVITIES INVOLVED IN CONVERSION
• PROCEDURE CONVERSION: involves changing the procedure of the
old system to the procedures of the new system.
Procedures must be developed for data input, data files, operating method,
outputs and internal control
• FILE CONVERSION: capturing data and creating computer files from
existing files
• SYSTEM CONVERSION: after online and off-line files have been
converted and reliability of the new system has been confirmed, daily data
processing can be shifted to the new system
• SCHEDULING EQUIPMENT AND PERSONNEL
• ALTERNATIVE PLANS IN CASE OF SYSTEM FAILURE