The document summarizes the structure and function of various cell organelles including the cell membrane, cell wall, centrioles, cilia and flagella, chloroplast, cytoplasm, cytoskeleton, endoplasmic reticulum, endosomes, Golgi apparatus, intermediate filaments, lysosomes, microfilaments, microtubules, microvilli, mitochondria, and nucleus. Key points include:
- The cell membrane regulates what enters and exits the cell and generates signals.
- The cell wall provides structure and protection in plant and fungal cells.
- Centrioles assist in cell division by forming spindle fibers. Cilia and flagella provide movement.
- Chloroplasts perform photosynthesis through light
The cell is the basic unit of structure and function in living organisms. There are two main types of cells - prokaryotic cells which lack organelles and a nucleus, and eukaryotic cells which contain organelles and a nucleus. Key components of cells include the cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, mitochondria and ribosomes. Cells come in a variety of shapes and sizes depending on their function. The cell membrane regulates what enters and exits the cell, and internal structures like the endoplasmic reticulum and golgi apparatus help transport materials within the cell.
This document provides information about cell structure and organization. It defines cells, tissues, organs and organ systems. It describes key differences between plant and animal cells as well as differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. It also outlines the structure and functions of important cell organelles including the plasma membrane, cell wall, cytoplasm, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes, mitochondria, ribosomes and nucleus. Large vacuoles in plant cells are also discussed.
The document is a PowerPoint presentation on cell structure and function. It begins by introducing the key points of cell theory: cells are the basic unit of life, cell structure and function are linked, and cells only arise from preexisting cells. It then discusses the diversity of cell types in the human body. The presentation goes on to describe the common features of the generalized cell, including the plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus. It focuses on the structure and functions of the plasma membrane, emphasizing the roles of membrane lipids and proteins in transport, signaling, enzymatic reactions, and other cellular processes.
The document provides information on various cell organelles:
1. Cell organelles include the nucleus, plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and specialized structures like the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi body, lysosomes, mitochondria, plastids, and vacuoles.
2. The chloroplast is a double-membraned plastid that contains chlorophyll and is the site of photosynthesis in plants.
3. The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of tubules connected to the nuclear membrane that helps synthesize lipids, modify proteins, and transport materials within the cell.
The document describes various organelles and their functions. It discusses the cell membrane, cell wall, nucleus, ribosomes, endomembrane system including the ER, Golgi body, lysosomes and vacuoles. It also describes mitochondria, chloroplasts and peroxisomes which are involved in metabolic processes like cellular respiration, photosynthesis and oxidation reactions. The organelles each have specialized structures and functions that allow cells to carry out life's processes.
HUMAN CYTOLOGY ( CELL AND TISSUE )
PRESENTED BY
BY SONU SHARMA. ROLL NO. 504/16
3RD YEAR B.SC RADIOGRAPHY & IMAGING TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF RADIO DIAGNOSIS
PANDIT BHAGWAT DAYAL SHARMA
UNIVERSITY OF MEDICAL SCIENCE AND RESEARCH P.G.I.M.S. ROHTAK,HARYANA.
Contact : - +91-7015728336
The document provides information on various cell organelles:
- It describes the structure and functions of the cell membrane, cell wall, centrioles, cilia and flagella, chloroplasts, cytoplasm, cytoskeleton, endoplasmic reticulum, endosomes, and Golgi apparatus. Key structures and roles in cellular processes are outlined for each organelle. The document is prepared by pharmacy students as part of their course on cell organelles.
- Histology is the study of tissues and how they form organs. It examines tissues at a microscopic level.
- Cytology is the study of cells. There are two main cell types - prokaryotic cells which are small and lack organelles, and eukaryotic cells which exist primarily in multicellular organisms and have organelles.
- The cell membrane forms the boundary of the cell and regulates what enters and exits. It contains proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates. It performs important functions like acting as a barrier, having receptor sites, and facilitating transport processes into and out of the cell.
The cell is the basic unit of structure and function in living organisms. There are two main types of cells - prokaryotic cells which lack organelles and a nucleus, and eukaryotic cells which contain organelles and a nucleus. Key components of cells include the cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, mitochondria and ribosomes. Cells come in a variety of shapes and sizes depending on their function. The cell membrane regulates what enters and exits the cell, and internal structures like the endoplasmic reticulum and golgi apparatus help transport materials within the cell.
This document provides information about cell structure and organization. It defines cells, tissues, organs and organ systems. It describes key differences between plant and animal cells as well as differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. It also outlines the structure and functions of important cell organelles including the plasma membrane, cell wall, cytoplasm, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes, mitochondria, ribosomes and nucleus. Large vacuoles in plant cells are also discussed.
The document is a PowerPoint presentation on cell structure and function. It begins by introducing the key points of cell theory: cells are the basic unit of life, cell structure and function are linked, and cells only arise from preexisting cells. It then discusses the diversity of cell types in the human body. The presentation goes on to describe the common features of the generalized cell, including the plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus. It focuses on the structure and functions of the plasma membrane, emphasizing the roles of membrane lipids and proteins in transport, signaling, enzymatic reactions, and other cellular processes.
The document provides information on various cell organelles:
1. Cell organelles include the nucleus, plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and specialized structures like the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi body, lysosomes, mitochondria, plastids, and vacuoles.
2. The chloroplast is a double-membraned plastid that contains chlorophyll and is the site of photosynthesis in plants.
3. The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of tubules connected to the nuclear membrane that helps synthesize lipids, modify proteins, and transport materials within the cell.
The document describes various organelles and their functions. It discusses the cell membrane, cell wall, nucleus, ribosomes, endomembrane system including the ER, Golgi body, lysosomes and vacuoles. It also describes mitochondria, chloroplasts and peroxisomes which are involved in metabolic processes like cellular respiration, photosynthesis and oxidation reactions. The organelles each have specialized structures and functions that allow cells to carry out life's processes.
HUMAN CYTOLOGY ( CELL AND TISSUE )
PRESENTED BY
BY SONU SHARMA. ROLL NO. 504/16
3RD YEAR B.SC RADIOGRAPHY & IMAGING TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF RADIO DIAGNOSIS
PANDIT BHAGWAT DAYAL SHARMA
UNIVERSITY OF MEDICAL SCIENCE AND RESEARCH P.G.I.M.S. ROHTAK,HARYANA.
Contact : - +91-7015728336
The document provides information on various cell organelles:
- It describes the structure and functions of the cell membrane, cell wall, centrioles, cilia and flagella, chloroplasts, cytoplasm, cytoskeleton, endoplasmic reticulum, endosomes, and Golgi apparatus. Key structures and roles in cellular processes are outlined for each organelle. The document is prepared by pharmacy students as part of their course on cell organelles.
- Histology is the study of tissues and how they form organs. It examines tissues at a microscopic level.
- Cytology is the study of cells. There are two main cell types - prokaryotic cells which are small and lack organelles, and eukaryotic cells which exist primarily in multicellular organisms and have organelles.
- The cell membrane forms the boundary of the cell and regulates what enters and exits. It contains proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates. It performs important functions like acting as a barrier, having receptor sites, and facilitating transport processes into and out of the cell.
Cells and its components(Anatomy) Easy explanationSwatilekha Das
Cells and its components,discussion on cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus with pictures....
easy explanation of anatomy topic for 1 st year GNM & B.Sc nursing students...
Comment to get explanation on your required topics.....
please like and share and follow.....
The document discusses the four main types of tissues in the human body: epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous tissue. It provides details on the various subtypes of epithelial tissues, including simple squamous, simple cuboidal, simple columnar, pseudostratified columnar, and stratified epithelial tissues. It also describes the different types of connective tissues, which are found throughout the body, including areolar, reticular, adipose, dense regular, and dense irregular connective tissues. The document outlines the characteristics, structures, locations and functions of each tissue subtype.
human cell anatomy - "cell is a basic structural unit of life" -as all living organism are made up of cells knowing the unique functions of the cell, shape, anatomy , function of organelle, and types of human cell involved are the most important factors and to also understand about -how human cells can play a vital role in our daily life.
The document summarizes key aspects of cellular structure and function. It describes the basic components of cells, including the cell membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus. Specifically, it discusses the structure and properties of the cell membrane, including its fluid mosaic model consisting of lipids and proteins. It also describes the cytoplasm and some of its major organelles, focusing on the endoplasmic reticulum. The functions of the cell membrane are also summarized, such as its role in transport, protection, receiving stimuli, and metabolic processes.
Cells are the basic units of life and come in two main types: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus while eukaryotic cells have a membrane-bound nucleus. Plant and animal cells also differ in that plant cells have a cell wall and chloroplasts, allowing them to perform photosynthesis, while animal cells do not. The organelles in cells such as the nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, and vacuoles each have distinct structures and functions that allow the cell to carry out its basic processes.
This document provides an outline of various cell organelles including the Golgi apparatus, cytoskeleton, smooth endoplasmic reticulum, lysosome, and centriole. It describes the structure, composition, functions, and key discoveries of each organelle. The Golgi apparatus modifies proteins and lipids, the cytoskeleton provides structure and transport, smooth ER is involved in lipid and hormone synthesis, lysosomes digest molecules, and centrioles form spindles during cell division.
The document summarizes the key components of the cell including the plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus. It provides details on the structure and functions of the plasma membrane, including the lipid bilayer structure and roles of membrane proteins. It then describes the two main parts of the cytoplasm - the cytosol and organelles within it. Specific organelles are outlined like the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, lysosomes, and peroxisomes. The nucleus is noted as housing the cell's DNA within chromosomes.
- The document discusses the structure of the cell membrane and cellular junctions.
- It describes the fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane, which proposes that the membrane is composed of a lipid bilayer with proteins embedded and floating within it, giving it a fluid and mosaic-like structure.
- There are two main types of cellular junctions - anchoring junctions, which attach the cell to other cells or the extracellular matrix, and tight junctions, which form a seal between adjacent cell membranes to control what can pass through the space between them.
The document summarizes key components and functions of the cell membrane and cytoplasm. It describes the cell membrane as a selectively permeable phospholipid bilayer that envelops the cell. It also discusses the fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane and its integral and peripheral proteins. The cytoplasm is described as containing a cytosol and various organelles, including the nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, and cytoskeleton. Various types of transport across the cell membrane, such as diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion, and active transport, are also summarized.
The document summarizes key concepts about cells from Chapter 3. It describes the basic components of cells, including the cell membrane, cytoplasm, organelles, nucleus, and other structures. It explains several processes of molecule movement across the cell membrane, such as diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis, and active transport. Specialized cell types and functions of organelles like mitochondria and lysosomes are also summarized.
This document describes the structure and function of different types of cells and cell organelles. It discusses the components of the cell membrane, including the fluid mosaic model. It also outlines the roles of various organelles such as the nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and peroxisomes. Additionally, it covers cell fibers, extensions, and connections like gap junctions, tight junctions, and desmosomes.
The human body contains over 200 cell types that all originate from a single fertilized egg cell. Cells differentiate and specialize to perform specific functions. The basic components of cells are the nucleus, which houses the DNA, and the cytoplasm, which contains organelles. The plasma membrane encloses the cell and regulates what enters and exits. Cells communicate through signaling molecules that bind receptors and trigger intracellular signal transduction pathways. Endocytosis and exocytosis allow materials to be transported into and out of cells while maintaining membrane integrity. The nucleus contains DNA and directs cellular activities through gene expression.
The document summarizes a lecture on cell physiology given by Dr. Nilesh Kate on February 18, 2015. It covers the basic structure and components of cells, including the cell membrane, organelles like mitochondria and the endoplasmic reticulum, and intercellular junctions. It describes the key discoveries in cell biology from the 17th century onwards and the development of the cell theory. The lecture objectives are listed as cell structure, the cell membrane, and intercellular junctions.
The document provides information on cells and their structures. It defines the cell as the basic unit of life and describes key cellular components including the cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, organelles like mitochondria and lysosomes, and other structures. It also explains the process of mitosis and how cells divide to form two daughter cells. Additionally, it discusses the four main types of tissues - epithelial, connective, muscle and nervous tissue - and provides details on their characteristics and functions.
This document summarizes the structure and functions of the cell and its organelles. It discusses that cells are the basic structural and functional units of the human body and are either somatic or sex cells. It describes the cell membrane as a lipid bilayer that forms boundaries and regulates transport. It also describes the nucleus, which contains genetic material, and the cytoplasm, where most cell processes occur. It provides details on various organelles like mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and others, and their specific functions in metabolism and transport. It concludes with brief descriptions of other structures like vacuoles, endoplasmic reticulum, and cytoskeleton.
This document provides an overview of cell structure and function. It begins with a brief history of cell discovery. It then defines cells and discusses the key differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. The document outlines cell theory and describes the basic components of cells, including the cell membrane, cytoplasm, organelles, and cytoskeleton. It explains the structure and functions of important organelles like the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, and mitochondria. Finally, it discusses cellular processes like endocytosis, the cell cycle, and the cytoskeleton.
This document provides an overview of cell structure. It describes the main components of eukaryotic cells, including the nucleus, which contains DNA and controls the cell; organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts that capture and release energy; and the cell membrane, which is composed of a lipid bilayer and regulates what enters and leaves the cell. It compares the cell to a factory, with specialized organelles performing different functions to produce proteins and other molecules.
Cell structure includes three main parts - the cell membrane, cytoplasm and organelles, and the nucleus. The cell membrane is a thin double layer that encloses the cell. The cytoplasm contains various organelles that carry out specific functions like protein synthesis, energy production, and waste removal. Prominent organelles include the endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, Golgi complex and ribosomes. The nucleus is the largest organelle and houses the cell's genetic material in the form of chromatin and chromosomes.
All living things are made up of cells.
Cells are the smallest working units of all living things.
All cells come from preexisting cells through cell division.
The document discusses the key differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. It explains that prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and organelles, while eukaryotic cells have a well-defined nucleus surrounded by a membrane as well as various intracellular organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts. The document also covers cell transport mechanisms, including passive diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and active transport which uses ATP.
Plant and animal cells are both eukaryotic cells that contain membrane-bound organelles. Plant cells have a cell wall and chloroplasts for photosynthesis, while animal cells lack these features. The key components of plant cells include the cell wall, cell membrane, chloroplasts, vacuoles, nucleus, and mitochondria. Plant cells vary in shape but are generally cube-shaped. Animal cells come in various irregular shapes and sizes, and their organelles include the nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi bodies, and ribosomes. Both plant and animal cells work together through their specialized organelles to carry out functions necessary for survival.
Cells and its components(Anatomy) Easy explanationSwatilekha Das
Cells and its components,discussion on cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus with pictures....
easy explanation of anatomy topic for 1 st year GNM & B.Sc nursing students...
Comment to get explanation on your required topics.....
please like and share and follow.....
The document discusses the four main types of tissues in the human body: epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous tissue. It provides details on the various subtypes of epithelial tissues, including simple squamous, simple cuboidal, simple columnar, pseudostratified columnar, and stratified epithelial tissues. It also describes the different types of connective tissues, which are found throughout the body, including areolar, reticular, adipose, dense regular, and dense irregular connective tissues. The document outlines the characteristics, structures, locations and functions of each tissue subtype.
human cell anatomy - "cell is a basic structural unit of life" -as all living organism are made up of cells knowing the unique functions of the cell, shape, anatomy , function of organelle, and types of human cell involved are the most important factors and to also understand about -how human cells can play a vital role in our daily life.
The document summarizes key aspects of cellular structure and function. It describes the basic components of cells, including the cell membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus. Specifically, it discusses the structure and properties of the cell membrane, including its fluid mosaic model consisting of lipids and proteins. It also describes the cytoplasm and some of its major organelles, focusing on the endoplasmic reticulum. The functions of the cell membrane are also summarized, such as its role in transport, protection, receiving stimuli, and metabolic processes.
Cells are the basic units of life and come in two main types: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus while eukaryotic cells have a membrane-bound nucleus. Plant and animal cells also differ in that plant cells have a cell wall and chloroplasts, allowing them to perform photosynthesis, while animal cells do not. The organelles in cells such as the nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, and vacuoles each have distinct structures and functions that allow the cell to carry out its basic processes.
This document provides an outline of various cell organelles including the Golgi apparatus, cytoskeleton, smooth endoplasmic reticulum, lysosome, and centriole. It describes the structure, composition, functions, and key discoveries of each organelle. The Golgi apparatus modifies proteins and lipids, the cytoskeleton provides structure and transport, smooth ER is involved in lipid and hormone synthesis, lysosomes digest molecules, and centrioles form spindles during cell division.
The document summarizes the key components of the cell including the plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus. It provides details on the structure and functions of the plasma membrane, including the lipid bilayer structure and roles of membrane proteins. It then describes the two main parts of the cytoplasm - the cytosol and organelles within it. Specific organelles are outlined like the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, lysosomes, and peroxisomes. The nucleus is noted as housing the cell's DNA within chromosomes.
- The document discusses the structure of the cell membrane and cellular junctions.
- It describes the fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane, which proposes that the membrane is composed of a lipid bilayer with proteins embedded and floating within it, giving it a fluid and mosaic-like structure.
- There are two main types of cellular junctions - anchoring junctions, which attach the cell to other cells or the extracellular matrix, and tight junctions, which form a seal between adjacent cell membranes to control what can pass through the space between them.
The document summarizes key components and functions of the cell membrane and cytoplasm. It describes the cell membrane as a selectively permeable phospholipid bilayer that envelops the cell. It also discusses the fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane and its integral and peripheral proteins. The cytoplasm is described as containing a cytosol and various organelles, including the nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, and cytoskeleton. Various types of transport across the cell membrane, such as diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion, and active transport, are also summarized.
The document summarizes key concepts about cells from Chapter 3. It describes the basic components of cells, including the cell membrane, cytoplasm, organelles, nucleus, and other structures. It explains several processes of molecule movement across the cell membrane, such as diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis, and active transport. Specialized cell types and functions of organelles like mitochondria and lysosomes are also summarized.
This document describes the structure and function of different types of cells and cell organelles. It discusses the components of the cell membrane, including the fluid mosaic model. It also outlines the roles of various organelles such as the nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and peroxisomes. Additionally, it covers cell fibers, extensions, and connections like gap junctions, tight junctions, and desmosomes.
The human body contains over 200 cell types that all originate from a single fertilized egg cell. Cells differentiate and specialize to perform specific functions. The basic components of cells are the nucleus, which houses the DNA, and the cytoplasm, which contains organelles. The plasma membrane encloses the cell and regulates what enters and exits. Cells communicate through signaling molecules that bind receptors and trigger intracellular signal transduction pathways. Endocytosis and exocytosis allow materials to be transported into and out of cells while maintaining membrane integrity. The nucleus contains DNA and directs cellular activities through gene expression.
The document summarizes a lecture on cell physiology given by Dr. Nilesh Kate on February 18, 2015. It covers the basic structure and components of cells, including the cell membrane, organelles like mitochondria and the endoplasmic reticulum, and intercellular junctions. It describes the key discoveries in cell biology from the 17th century onwards and the development of the cell theory. The lecture objectives are listed as cell structure, the cell membrane, and intercellular junctions.
The document provides information on cells and their structures. It defines the cell as the basic unit of life and describes key cellular components including the cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, organelles like mitochondria and lysosomes, and other structures. It also explains the process of mitosis and how cells divide to form two daughter cells. Additionally, it discusses the four main types of tissues - epithelial, connective, muscle and nervous tissue - and provides details on their characteristics and functions.
This document summarizes the structure and functions of the cell and its organelles. It discusses that cells are the basic structural and functional units of the human body and are either somatic or sex cells. It describes the cell membrane as a lipid bilayer that forms boundaries and regulates transport. It also describes the nucleus, which contains genetic material, and the cytoplasm, where most cell processes occur. It provides details on various organelles like mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and others, and their specific functions in metabolism and transport. It concludes with brief descriptions of other structures like vacuoles, endoplasmic reticulum, and cytoskeleton.
This document provides an overview of cell structure and function. It begins with a brief history of cell discovery. It then defines cells and discusses the key differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. The document outlines cell theory and describes the basic components of cells, including the cell membrane, cytoplasm, organelles, and cytoskeleton. It explains the structure and functions of important organelles like the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, and mitochondria. Finally, it discusses cellular processes like endocytosis, the cell cycle, and the cytoskeleton.
This document provides an overview of cell structure. It describes the main components of eukaryotic cells, including the nucleus, which contains DNA and controls the cell; organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts that capture and release energy; and the cell membrane, which is composed of a lipid bilayer and regulates what enters and leaves the cell. It compares the cell to a factory, with specialized organelles performing different functions to produce proteins and other molecules.
Cell structure includes three main parts - the cell membrane, cytoplasm and organelles, and the nucleus. The cell membrane is a thin double layer that encloses the cell. The cytoplasm contains various organelles that carry out specific functions like protein synthesis, energy production, and waste removal. Prominent organelles include the endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, Golgi complex and ribosomes. The nucleus is the largest organelle and houses the cell's genetic material in the form of chromatin and chromosomes.
All living things are made up of cells.
Cells are the smallest working units of all living things.
All cells come from preexisting cells through cell division.
The document discusses the key differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. It explains that prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and organelles, while eukaryotic cells have a well-defined nucleus surrounded by a membrane as well as various intracellular organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts. The document also covers cell transport mechanisms, including passive diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and active transport which uses ATP.
Plant and animal cells are both eukaryotic cells that contain membrane-bound organelles. Plant cells have a cell wall and chloroplasts for photosynthesis, while animal cells lack these features. The key components of plant cells include the cell wall, cell membrane, chloroplasts, vacuoles, nucleus, and mitochondria. Plant cells vary in shape but are generally cube-shaped. Animal cells come in various irregular shapes and sizes, and their organelles include the nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi bodies, and ribosomes. Both plant and animal cells work together through their specialized organelles to carry out functions necessary for survival.
The document summarizes the key components and structures of plant cells. It describes the cell wall, cell membrane, plasmodesmata, nuclear membrane, nucleus, vacuole, cytoplasm, plastids, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, ribosomes, microbodies, microtubules, and microfilaments. Each plays an important role in functions like protection, structure, transport, photosynthesis, protein production, and cell structure.
The document summarizes the structure and function of various organelles in the cell. It describes the nucleus, which contains the cell's DNA and directs protein production. It also describes the cell membrane, ribosomes, lysosomes, mitochondria, cilia, flagella, the cell wall, cytoplasm, microtubules, microfilaments, plastids, vacuoles, the endoplasmic reticulum, chloroplasts, the Golgi apparatus, the nucleolus, centrioles, and the cytoskeleton. Each organelle has a specific role in carrying out functions necessary for the cell.
The document summarizes key organelles and structures found within plant and animal cells. It describes the nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, ribosomes, plasma membrane, vesicles, lysosomes, centrosomes, chloroplasts, cell wall, vacuoles, and differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. It also discusses epithelial tissues, mesophyll tissue, and parenchyma cells.
The document summarizes the structure and function of eukaryotic cell organelles including the nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, ribosomes, plasma membrane, vesicles, lysosomes, centrosome, chloroplasts, and cell wall. It also describes differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and types of epithelial and plant tissues.
This document summarizes the structures and functions of organelles in eukaryotic cells. It describes how the cell is made up of numerous membrane-bound organelles that carry out specialized functions like protein production, energy generation, waste disposal, and more. Organelles include the nucleus, which houses genetic material and controls the cell, mitochondria and chloroplasts that generate energy and food, and the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, vacuoles, and cytoskeleton that transport materials and provide structure.
The document provides information about hair cells. It discusses that hair cells must have appropriate nutrition to stay alive. It notes that humans have between 100,000 to 150,000 hairs that each grow around 5 inches every 5-6 years. When the hair dies, it takes around 4 months to regrow. Keratin is the main protein in hair and contains amino acids like cysteine and methionine. Disulfide bonds give curly hair its structure and perms/relaxants break these bonds to straighten hair. Hair loss can be inherited and treated with medicine or transplant, or caused by diseases, stress, or damage and will regrow after the cause is removed.
The document summarizes the structures and functions of animal cells. It discusses that animal cells contain a nucleus surrounded by a nuclear envelope that houses the cell's genetic material. The cytoplasm contains various membrane-bound organelles that perform specialized functions like mitochondria which generate energy, the endoplasmic reticulum which synthesizes proteins, and lysosomes which digest waste. The plasma membrane encloses the cell and regulates what enters and exits, and the cytoskeleton maintains the cell's shape.
The document summarizes key aspects of cellular organization and structure. It describes that cells make up tissues, tissues make up organs, and organs make up organ systems. It then discusses the structures and functions of key cellular components in plant and animal cells, including the plasma membrane, cell wall, cytoplasm, Golgi apparatus, ER, lysosomes, mitochondria, ribosomes, nucleus, and vacuoles. Finally, it compares the key differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, noting things like size, presence of membrane-bound organelles, and cell division mechanisms.
This document summarizes key aspects of cell biology. It describes the structures and functions of eukaryotic cells including cell organelles like the nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and vacuoles. It also compares the key differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, noting that eukaryotic cells are generally larger, have a nucleus bounded by a nuclear envelope, and contain membrane-bound organelles, while prokaryotic cells lack these structures. The document provides details on the composition and functions of important cell structures like the cell membrane, cell wall, and cytoplasm.
The document summarizes key aspects of cell structure and function. It describes cells as the smallest functional units of the body that are grouped together to form tissues and organs. The main parts of the cell are then outlined, including the plasma membrane, cytoplasm, cytosol, and various organelles such as the nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and peroxisomes. Each organelle's structure and specific functions are briefly explained.
Plant cells contain organelles that animal cells do not, including a cell wall, chloroplasts, and central vacuoles. The cell wall lies outside the cell membrane and provides structure and protection to the cell. Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll and are where photosynthesis occurs, converting sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water into glucose. The central vacuole stores water, nutrients, and wastes and helps maintain the plant cell's structure. Other organelles like the nucleus, mitochondria, Golgi bodies, and ribosomes perform similar functions in plant and animal cells.
The document provides a map and descriptions of the major cellular organelles. It describes the nucleus, which contains the cell's DNA and directs protein production. The cell membrane separates and protects the cell, controlling what enters and exits. Ribosomes build proteins using instructions from the nucleus. Lysosomes digest molecules. Mitochondria produce energy. Other organelles described include the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, chloroplasts, vacuoles, cytoskeleton, and centrioles.
The document provides information about cell structure and function. It discusses that cells are the fundamental units of living things and humans are made up of trillions of cells. It then describes the main parts of the cell in detail, including the plasma membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, organelles like the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, mitochondria, and microtubules. It explains the functions of these parts, such as how the organelles work together to keep the cell alive and allow it to carry out tasks like nutrient intake, processing, waste removal, and energy production. The document also discusses different types of transport across the cell membrane like endocytosis and pinocytosis.
Plant cells have several key structures that distinguish them from animal cells. They are surrounded by a cell wall composed of cellulose and other materials that provides structural support and protection. Inside the cell wall is a cell membrane. Plant cells contain organelles such as a nucleus, chloroplasts, mitochondria, and a central vacuole. Chloroplasts are important for photosynthesis and contain chlorophyll. Specialized plant cells include parenchyma cells involved in photosynthesis and food production, sclerenchyma and collenchyma cells that provide support, and xylem and phloem cells responsible for transporting water and nutrients. The main functions of plant cells are photosynthesis, transport throughout the plant, and storage
Biochemistry is the study of chemical processes in living organisms. It has many applications in nursing, as therapeutic agents like insulin were first developed through biochemistry experiments. Several medical conditions can be explained by biochemical abnormalities, such as anemia, jaundice in infants, or dark urine indicating a metabolic disorder. Cells are the basic structural and functional units of living things. There are two main types: prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells lack organelles and a nucleus, while eukaryotic cells have intracellular structures like the nucleus, mitochondria, and chloroplasts that carry out specialized functions.
The document discusses the structure and function of human cells. It begins by defining what cells are and that humans are made up of trillions of cells. It then describes the main parts of the cell including the plasma membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, and microtubules. It explains the role and function of each of these organelle. The document concludes by summarizing that all the organelles work together to keep the cell alive and allow it to perform its specific functions through processes like nutrient intake, waste removal, energy production, and replication.
This presentation offers the bird's eye view of the cell as the basic structural and functional unit of life. It also addresses the origin of eukaryotic cells from the prokaryotic cell by the endosymbiotic theory.
Similar to Structure, chemical_composition_and_function_of_organalles. (20)
Introduction
Hypersensitivity is increased reactivity or increased sensitivity by the animal body to an antigen to
which it has been previously exposed.
The term is often used as a synonym for allergy, which describes a state of altered reactivity to an
antigen.
Hypersensitivity has been divided into categories based upon whether it can be passively transferred
by antibodies or by specifically immune lymphoid cells.
The most widely adopted current classification is that of Coombs and Gell that designates
immunoglobulin-mediated (immediate) hypersensitivity reactions as types I, II, and III, and
lymphoid cell-mediated (delayed-type) hypersensitivity/cell-mediated immunity as a type IV
reaction.
“Hypersensitivity” generally represents the “dark side,” signifying the undesirable aspects of an
immune reaction, whereas the term “immunity” implies a desirable effect.
A hypersensitive response (HR) is an anti-pathogen response in plants produced by avr-R system
activation that leads to alterations in Ca+ flux, MAPK activation, and NO and ROI formation.
There is rapid necrosis of plant cells in contact with the pathogen.
This process prevents spread of the pathogen and releases hydrolytic enzymes that facilitate injury to
the pathogen’s structural integrity.
Causes of Hypersensitivity
Immune responses that are the cause of hypersensitivity diseases may be specific for antigens from different
sources:
Autoimmunity: reactions against self antigens.
Reactions against microbes.
Reactions against non-microbial environmental antigens.
Mechanism of Hypersensitivity
Hypersensitivity diseases are commonly classified according to the type of immune response and the
effector mechanism responsible for cell and tissue injury. These mechanisms include some that are
predominantly dependent on antibodies and others predominantly dependent on T cells, although a role for
both humoral and cell-mediated immunity is often found in many hypersensitivity diseases.
The document describes two staining techniques: Gram staining and acid fast staining. Gram staining divides bacteria into Gram positive and Gram negative groups based on their ability to retain or lose crystal violet dye during decolorization. Acid fast staining identifies acid fast bacteria that retain the primary dye carbol fuchsin during decolorization with acid-alcohol due to their high lipid cell walls. Both techniques are used to differentiate types of bacteria under the microscope based on staining patterns. Examples of Gram positive, Gram negative, acid fast and non-acid fast bacteria are provided.
Vibrio cholerae is the bacteria that causes cholera. It is transmitted through contaminated food and water and causes severe diarrhea and dehydration. The key virulence factors that allow V. cholerae to cause disease are cholera toxin and toxin co-regulated pilli. Cholera toxin increases cyclic AMP in intestinal cells, inhibiting absorption and increasing secretion of fluid leading to rice water stool. Diagnosis involves culture on selective media like TCBS and treatment focuses on oral rehydration therapy along with antibiotics like tetracycline, doxycycline or trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole to reduce duration of illness.
Microbial assays or microbiological assays could be a sort of bioassays designed to analyse the compounds or substances that have impact on micro-organisms. They help to estimate concentration and efficiency of antibiotics. Also facilitate in determination of the simplest anti-biotic appropriate for patient recovery.
The document provides information on the three lines of defense against microbial pathogens in the human body:
1) The first line of defense consists of natural barriers like intact skin and mucous membranes that prevent pathogen entry.
2) The second line of defense involves innate immune responses after pathogen entry, such as phagocytosis by white blood cells, inflammation, and antimicrobial substances like the complement system and interferons.
3) The third line of defense consists of antigen-specific adaptive immune responses mediated by lymphocytes and antibodies that specifically target pathogens that breach the first two lines of defense.
1. The document summarizes the pathogenesis of COVID-19, caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus. It begins by describing the structure and types of coronaviruses.
2. It then explains how SARS-CoV-2 enters cells through the ACE2 receptor, hijacks the cell to replicate, and causes cell death. This triggers an immune response and cytokine release, leading to symptoms like fever, cough and shortness of breath.
3. The cytokines can also cause lung issues like edema, reduced surfactant, and alveolar collapse. They recruit neutrophils that further damage the lungs. Cytokines traveling to the brain cause fever. Severe cases can lead to septic
1. The document describes SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19. It discusses the virus's structure, types of coronaviruses, and epidemiology of the COVID-19 pandemic.
2. The pathogenesis section explains how the virus enters cells via the ACE2 receptor in the lungs, hijacks the cell to replicate, and causes an immune response that results in symptoms.
3. Symptoms are caused by inflammatory cytokines at the lung, CNS, and systemic levels, potentially leading to conditions like sepsis and multiple organ dysfunction.
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it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
How to Fix the Import Error in the Odoo 17Celine George
An import error occurs when a program fails to import a module or library, disrupting its execution. In languages like Python, this issue arises when the specified module cannot be found or accessed, hindering the program's functionality. Resolving import errors is crucial for maintaining smooth software operation and uninterrupted development processes.
How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
2. Cell Organelles definition
Cell organelle is a specialized entity present inside a particular type of
cell that performs a specific function.
There are various cell organelles, out if which, some are common in most types of cells like cell
membranes, nucleus, and cytoplasm. However, some organelles are specific to one particular type
of cell-like plastids and cell walls in plant cells.
Cell membrane (Plasma membrane/ Plasmalemma)
A plasma membrane is composed of lipids and proteins where the composition might fluctuate
based on fluidity, external environment, and the different stages of development of the cell.
Structure
Structurally, it consists of a phospholipid bilayer along with two types of proteins viz. embedded
proteins and peripheral proteins that function in providing shape and allowing the movement of
particles in and out of the cell.
The most abundant lipid which is present in the cell membrane is a phospholipid which contains a
polar head group attached to two hydrophobic fatty acid tails.
The embedded proteins act as channels for the transfer of particles across the cell with some
proteins acting as receptors for the binding of various components.
The peripheral proteins function as to provide fluidity as well as mechanical support to the
structure of the cell.
3. Functions
The cell membrane provides mechanical support that facilities the shape of the cell while
enclosing the cell and its components from the external environment.
It regulates what can be allowed to enter and exit the cell through channels, acting as a semi-
permeable membrane, which facilities the exchange of essential compounds required for the
survival of the cell.
It generates and distributes signals in and outside of the cell for the proper functioning of the cell
and all the organelles.
It allows the interaction between cells required during tissue formation and cell fusion.
Cell Wall
An additional non-living layer present outside the cell membrane in some cells that provides
structure, protection, and filtering mechanism to the cell is the cell wall.
Structure
In a plant cell, the cell wall is made up of cellulose, hemicellulose, and proteins while in a fungal
cell, it is composed of chitin.
A cell wall is multilayered with a middle lamina, a primary cell wall, and a secondary cell wall.
Middle lamina contains polysaccharides that provide adhesion and allows binding of the cells to
one another.
After middle lamina is the primary cell wall which is composed of cellulose. The last layer, which
is not always present, is the secondary cell wall made of cellulose and hemicellulose.
4. Functions
The critical function of the cell wall is protecting and maintaining the shape of the cell. It also
helps the cell withstand the turgor pressure of the cell.
It initiates cell division by providing signals to the cell and allows the passage of some molecules
into the cell while blocking others.
Centriole
Centrioles are tubular structures mostly found in eukaryotic cells which are composed mainly of
the protein tubulin.
Structure
A centriole consists of a cylindrical structure made with nine triplets microtubules that surround
the periphery of the centriole while the center has a Y-shaped linker and a barrel-like structure
that stabilizes the centriole.
Another structure called cartwheel is present in a centriole which is made up of a central hub with
nine spokes/filaments radiating from it. Each of these filaments/spokes is connected to the
microtubules through a pinhead.
Functions
During cell division, centrioles have a crucial role in forming spindle fibers which assist the
movement of chromatids towards their respective sides.
5. They are involved in the formation of cilia and flagella.
Cilia and Flagella
Cilia and Flagella are tiny hair-like projections from the cell made of microtubules and covered
by the plasma membrane.
Structure
Cilia are hair-like projections that have a 9+2 arrangement of microtubules with a radial pattern
of 9 outer microtubule doublet that surrounds two singlet microtubules. This arrangement is
attached to the bottom with a basal body.
Flagella is a filamentous organelle, the structure of which, is different in prokaryotes and
eukaryotes.
In prokaryotes, it is made up of the protein called flagellin wrapped around in a helical manner
creating a hollow structure at the center throughout the length.
In eukaryotes, however, the protein is absent and the structure is replaced with microtubules.
Functions
The most critical role of cilia and flagella is movement. These are responsible for the movement
of the organisms as well as for the movement of various particles present around the organisms.
Some cilia present in some particular organs may have the function of sense. The cilium in the
blood vessels, which helps in controlling the flow of blood is an example.
Chloroplast
A chloroplast is a type of plastic that is involved in photosynthesis in plants and algae.
Chloroplast contains an essential pigment called chlorophyll necessary to trap sunlight for the
production of glucose.
Structure
6. It is a double-membraned structure with its own DNA which is inherited from the previous
chloroplast.
These are usually lens-shaped with shape and number varying according to cells. They have an
outer membrane, an inner membrane, and a thylakoid membrane that enclosed the gel-like matric
called the stroma.
The outer and inner membrane is porous and allows transport of materials while the stroma
contains DNA, chloroplast ribosomes, proteins, and starch granules.
Functions
The chloroplast is the primary center for light-dependent and light-independent reactions during
photosynthesis.
Different proteins present in chlorophyll are involved in the regulation of photorespiration.
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm refers to everything present inside the cell except the nucleus.
Structure
The cytoplasm consists of a cytosol; a gel-like substance that contains other matter; cell
organelles; smaller cell-like bodies bound by separate membranes; and cytoplasmic inclusions;
insoluble molecules that store energy and are not surrounded by any layer.
The cytoplasm is colorless and has about 80% water along with various nutrients required for the
cell.
It is known to have the properties of both viscous matters as well as elastic matter. Under its
elasticity, cytoplasm helps in the movement of materials inside the cell by a process termed
cytoplasmic streaming.
7. Functions
Most of the vital cellular and enzymatic reactions like cellular respiration and translation of
mRNA into proteins occur in the cytoplasm.
It acts as a buffer and protects genetic materials as well as other organelles from damage due to
collision or change in the pH of the cytosol.
The process called cytoplasmic streaming helps in the distribution of various nutrients and
facilitates the movement of cell organelles within the cell.
Cytoskeleton
A number of fibrous structures are present in the cytosol that helps give shape to the cell while
supporting cellular transport.
Structure
Around three different classes of fibers make up the cytoskeleton which is: microtubules,
microfilaments, and intermediate filaments.
These are separated based on a protein present in them.
8. Functions
The critical function of the cytoskeleton is to provide shape and mechanical support to the cell
against deformation.
It allows the expansion and contraction of the cell which assists in the movement of the cell.
It is also involved in intracellular and extracellular transport of materials.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) is present as an interconnection of tubules that are connected to the
nuclear membrane in eukaryotic cells.
There are two types of ER based on the presence or absence of ribosomes on them:
Rough ER (RER) with ribosomes attached on the cytosolic face of Endoplasmic
Reticulum and thus is involved in protein synthesis
Smooth ER (SER)which lacks ribosomes and has a function during lipid synthesis.
Structure
Endoplasmic Reticulum exists in three forms viz. cisternae, vesicles, and tubules.
Cisternae are sac-like flattened, unbranched structures that remain stacked one on top of another.
Vesicles are spherical structures that carry proteins throughout the cell.
Tubules are tubular branched structures forming a connection between cisternae and vesicles.
9. Functions
ER contains many of the enzymes required for several metabolic processes, and the surface of the
ER is essential for other operations like diffusion, osmosis, and active transport.
One of the crucial functions of ER is the synthesis of lipids like cholesterol and steroids.
Rough ER allows for the modification of polypeptides emerging out of the ribosomes to prepare
secondary and tertiary structures of the protein.
ER also synthesizes various membrane proteins and has a crucial role in preparing the nuclear
envelope after cell division.
Endosomes
Endosomes are membrane-bound compartments within a cell originating from the Golgi network
Structure
There are different types of endosomes based on morphology and the time it takes for the
endocytosed materials to reach them.
The early endosomes are made with the tubular-vesicular network while the late endosomes lack
tubules but contain many close-packed intraluminal vesicles. The recycling endosomes are found
with microtubules and are mainly composed of tubular structures.
10. Functions
Endosomes allow the sorting and delivery of internalized materials from the cell surface and
transport of materials to the Golgi or the lysosomes.
Golgi Apparatus/ Golgi Complex/ Golgi Body
The Golgi Apparatus is the cell organelle mostly present in eukaryotic cells which is responsible
for the packaging of macromolecules into vesicles so that they can be sent out to their site of
action.
Structure
The structure of the Golgi Complex is pleomorphic; however, it typically exists in three forms,
i.e. cisternae, vesicles, and tubules.
The cisternae, which is the smallest unit of Golgi Complex, has a flattened sac-like structure
which is arranged in bundles in a parallel fashion.
Tubules are present as tubular and branched structures that radiate from the cisternae and are
fenestrated at the periphery.
Vesicles are spherical bodies that are divided into three groups as transitional vesicles, secretory
vesicles, and clathrin-coated vesicles.
11. Functions
Golgi Complex has an essential purpose of directing proteins and lipids to their destination and
thus, act as the “traffic police” of the cell.
They are involved in the exocytosis of various products and proteins like zymogen, mucus,
lactoprotein, and parts of the thyroid hormone.
Golgi Complex is involved in the synthesis of other cell organelles like a cell membrane,
lysozymes, among others.
They are also involved in the sulfation of various molecules.
Intermediate filaments
The third class of filament that makes up the cytoskeleton are the intermediate filaments.
They are designated at intermediate filaments because of the intermediate diameter of the
filaments as compared to microfilaments and myosin proteins.
Structure
Intermediate filaments contain a family of related proteins.
The individual filaments are coiled around each other in a helical structure called coiled-coil
structure.
Functions
Intermediate filaments contribute to the structural integrity of a cell while playing a crucial role in
holding tissues of various organs like the skin.
Lysozyme
Lysozymes are membrane-bound organelles that occur in the cytoplasm of animal cells.
These organelles contain an array of hydrolytic enzymes required for the degradation of various
macromolecules.
12. There are two types of lysozymes:
Primary lysosome containing hydrolytic enzymes like lipases, amylases, proteases, and
nucleases.
Secondary lysozyme formed by the fusion of primary lysozymes containing engulfed
molecules or organelles.
Structure
The shape of lysozymes is irregular or pleomorphic; however, mostly, they are found in the
spherical or granular structure.
Lysozymes are surrounded by a lysosomal membrane that contains the enzymes within
the lysosome and protects the cytosol with the rest of the cell from the harmful action of the
enzymes.
Functions
These organelles are responsible for intracellular digestion where the larger macromolecules are
degraded into smaller molecules with the help of enzymes present in them.
Lysozymes also perform the critical function of the autolysis of unwanted organelles within the
cytoplasm.
Besides these, the lysosome is involved in various cellular processes, including secretion, plasma
membrane repair, cell signaling, and energy metabolism.
Microfilaments
Microfilaments are a part of the cytoskeleton of a cell made up of actin protein in the form of
parallel polymers.
These are the smallest filaments of the cytoskeleton with high rigidity and flexibility, providing
strength and movement to the cell.
Structure
13. The filaments are present either in cross-linked forming networks or as bundles. The chains of
protein remain twisted around each other in a helical arrangement.
One of the polar ends of the filament is positively charged and barbed, whereas the other end is
negatively charged and pointed.
Functions
It generates the strength for the structure and movement of the cell in association with myosin
protein.
They help in cell division and are involved in the products of various cell surface projections.
Microtubules
Microtubules are also a part of the cytoskeleton differing from microfilaments in the presence of
tubulin protein
Structure
They are long hollow, beaded tubular structure of diameter of about 24nm.
The wall of the microtubules consists of globular subunits present at a helical array of a and b
tubulin.
Similar to microfilaments, the ends of microtubules also have a defined polarity with one end
being positively charged while the other being negatively charged.
14. Functions
As a part of the cytoskeleton, they provide shape and movement to the cell.
Microtubules facilitate the movement of other cell organelles within the cell through binding
proteins.
Microvilli
Microvilli are tiny finger-like structures that project on or out of the cells. These exist either on
their own or in conjunction with villi.
Structure
Microvilli are bundles of protuberances loosely arranged on the surface of the cell with little or no
cellular organelles.
These are surrounded by a plasma membrane enclosing cytoplasm and microfilaments.
These are bundles of actin filaments bound by fimbrin, villin, and epsin.
15. Functions
Microvilli increase the surface area of the cell, thus, enhancing the absorption and secretion
functions.
The membrane of microvilli is packed with enzymes that allow the break down of larger
molecules into smaller allowing more effective absorption.
Microvilli act as an anchoring agent in white blood cells and in sperms during fertilization.
Mitochondria
Mitochondria are double membrane-bound cell organelles responsible for the supply and storage
of energy for the cell.
The oxidation of various substrates in the cell to release energy in the form of ATP (Adenosine
Triphosphate) is the primary purpose of mitochondria.
Structure
A mitochondrion contains two membranes with the outer layer being smooth while the inner layer
is marked with folding and finger-like structures called cristae.
The inner mitochondrial membrane contains various enzymes, coenzymes, and components of
multiple cycles along with pores for the transport of substrates, ATP, and phosphate molecules.
Within the membranes is a matrix that contains various enzymes of metabolic processes like
Kreb’s cycle.
In addition to these enzymes, mitochondria are also home to single or double-stranded DNA
called mtDNA that is capable of producing 10% of the proteins present in the mitochondria.
16. Functions
The primary function of mitochondria is the synthesis of energy in the form of ATP required for
the proper functioning of all the cell organelles.
Mitochondria also help in balancing the amount of Ca+ ions within the cell and assists the
process of apoptosis.
Different segments of hormones and components of blood are built within mitochondria.
Mitochondria in the liver have the ability to detoxify ammonia.
Nucleus
The nucleus is a double membrane-bound structure responsible for controlling all cellular
activities as well as a center for genetic materials, and it’s transferring.
It is one of the large cell organelles occupying 10% of total space in the cell.
It is often termed the “brain of the cell” as it provides commands for the proper functioning of
other cell organelles.
A nucleus is clearly defined in the case of a eukaryotic cell; however, it is absent in prokaryotic
organisms with the genetic material distributed in the cytoplasm.
Structure
Structurally, the nucleus consists of a nuclear envelope, chromatin, and nucleolus.
The nuclear envelope is similar to the cell membrane in structure and composition. It has pores
that allow the movement of proteins and RNA in and outside the nucleus. It enables the
interaction with other cell organelles while keeping nucleoplasm and chromatin within the
envelope.
The chromatin in the nucleus contains RNA or DNA along with nuclear proteins, as genetic
material that is responsible for carrying the genetic information from one generation to another. It
17. is present in a sense and compact structure which might be visible as chromosome under
powerful magnification.
The nucleolus is like a nucleus within the nucleus. It is a membrane-less organelle that is
responsible for the synthesis of rRNA and assembly of ribosomes required for protein synthesis.
Functions
The nucleus is responsible for storage as well as the transfer of genetic materials in the form of
DNA or RNA.
It aids in the process of transcription by the synthesis of mRNA molecules.
The nucleus controls the activity of all other organelles while facilitating processes like cell
growth, cell division and synthesis of proteins.
Peroxisomes
Peroxisomes are oxidative membrane-bound organelles found in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotes.
The name is accredited due to their hydrogen peroxide generating and removing activities.
Structure
Peroxisome consists of a single membrane and granular matrix scattered in the cytoplasm.
They exist either in the form of interconnected tubules or as individual peroxisomes.
18. The compartments within every peroxisome allow the creation of optimized conditions for
different metabolic activities.
They consist of several types of enzymes with major groups being urate oxidase, D-amino acid
oxidase, and catalase.
Functions
Peroxisomes are involved in the production and elimination of hydrogen peroxide during
biochemical processes.
Oxidation of fatty acids takes place within peroxisomes.
Additionally, peroxisomes are also involved in the synthesis of lipid-like cholesterol and
plasmalogens.
Plasmodesmata
Plasmodesmata are tiny passages or channels that allow the transfer of material and
communication between different cells.
Structure
There are 103 – 105 number of plasmodesmata connecting two adjacent cells with 50-60 nm in
diameter.
A plasmodesma has three layers:
The plasma membrane is continuous with the plasma membrane of the cell and has the
same phospholipid bilayer.
19. The cytoplasmic sleeve that is continuous with the cytosol that allows the exchange of
materials between two cells.
Desmotubule which is a part of the endoplasmic reticulum that provides a network
between two cells and allows the transport of some molecules.
Figure: Diagram of Plasmodesmata.
Functions
Plasmodesmata are the primary site for the communication of two cells. It allows the transfer of
molecules like proteins, RNA, and viral genomes.
Plastids
Plastids are double membrane-bound structures present in plants and other eukaryotes involved in
the synthesis and storage of food.
Structure
Plastids are usually oval or spherical with an outer and an inner membrane between which lies the
intermembrane space.
The inner membrane enclosed a matrix called stroma that contains small structures called grana.
Each granum consists of several sac-like thylakoids piled one on the other and connected by
stroma lamellae.
Plastids contain DNA and RNA that allows it to synthesize necessary proteins for different
processes.
20. Figure: Diagram of types of plastids.
Functions
Chloroplasts are the center for many metabolic activities, including photosynthesis as it contains
enzymes and other components required for it.
They are also involved in the storage of food, primarily starch.
Ribosomes
Ribosomes are ribonucleoprotein containing equal parts RNA and proteins along with an array of
other essential components required for protein synthesis.
In prokaryotes, they exist freely while in eukaryotes, they are found either free or attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum.
Structure
The ribonucleoprotein consists of two subunits.
In the case of prokaryotic cells, the ribosomes are of the 70S with the larger subunit of 50S and
the smaller one of 30S.
Eukaryotic cells have 80S ribosomes with 60S larger subunit and 40S smaller subunit.
Ribosomes are short-lived as after the protein synthesis, the subunits split up and can be either
reused or remain broken up.
21. Functions
Ribosomes are the site of biological protein synthesis in all living organisms.
They arrange the amino acids in the order indicated by tRNA and assist in protein synthesis.
Storage granules
Storage granules are membrane-bound organelles, also called zymogen granules storing cell’s
energy reserve and other metabolites.
Structure
These granules are surrounded by a lipid bilayer and are composed mostly of phosphorus and
oxygen.
The components inside these storage granules depend on their location in the body with some
even containing degradative enzymes yet to participate in digestive activities.
22. Figure: Diagram of Storage Granules.
Functions
Many prokaryotes and eukaryotes store nutrients and reserves in the form of storage granules in
the cytoplasm.
Sulfur granules are characteristic of prokaryotes that utilize hydrogen sulfide as a source of
energy.
Vacuole
Vacuoles are membrane-bound structures varying in size in cells of different organisms.
Structure
The vacuole is surrounded by a membrane called tonoplast, which encloses fluid containing
inorganic materials like water and organic materials like nutrients and even enzymes.
These are formed by the fusion of various vesicles, so vacuoles are very similar to vesicles in
structure.
23. Functions
Vacuoles act as a storage for nutrients as well as waste materials to protect the cell for toxicity.
They have an essential function of homeostasis as it allows the balance of pH of the cell by influx
and outflow of H+ ions to the cytoplasm.
Vacuoles contain enzymes that play an important role in different metabolic processes.
Vesicles
Vesicles are structures present inside the cell which are either formed naturally during processes
like exocytosis, endocytosis or transport of materials throughout the cell, or they might form
artificially, which are called liposomes.
There are different types of vesicles like vacuoles, secretory and transport vesicles based on their
function
Structure
A vesicle is a structure containing liquid or cytosol which is enclosed by a lipid bilayer.
The outer layer enclosing the liquid is called a lamellar phase which is similar to the plasma
membrane. One end of the lipid bilayer it hydrophobic whereas the other end is hydrophilic.
24. Figure: A liposome (left) and dendrimersome. The blue parts of their molecules are hydrophilic, the
green parts are hydrophobic.
Functions
Vesicles facilitate the storage and transport of materials in and outside the cell. It even allows the
exchange of molecules between two cells.
Because vesicles are enclosed inside a lipid bilayer, vesicles also function in metabolism and
enzyme storage.
They allow temporary storage of food and also control the buoyancy of the cell.
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