The document discusses conflict styles and provides information on different types of conflict including pseudo-conflict, simple conflict, and ego-conflict. It also outlines five conflict management styles: avoidance, accommodation, competition, compromise, and collaboration. Effective communication and addressing the root causes of conflict are emphasized as important for resolving conflicts in a constructive manner.

1. What is your conflict style?
(in class quiz)

2. What is conflict?
• An expressed struggle – Disagreement becomes verbal
and nonverbal facial/gestures show aggression.
• Between at least two independent people – Conflict
between members affects group members.
• Incompatible goals, scarce resources and interference –
Conflict often because two people want the same thing.
• Achieving a goal- Understanding what people want helps
to manage the conflict.

3. Common Roots
of Conflict
• Ineffective
communication
• Values clashes • Adversarial
• Culture clashes management
• Work policies and • Noncompliance
practices • Competition for scarce
resources
• Personality clashes
Copyright © Houghton
Mifflin Company. All rights 13 - 3
reserved.

4. In Effective
Communication
• Ineffective communication is a major source
of personal conflict
• When different people work closely together,
communication breakdowns are inevitable
• First determine if the conflict is a
misunderstanding or a true disagreement
• Check that you are using confirming not
disconfirming communication – pg. 102 – 103
Copyright © Houghton
Mifflin Company. All rights 13 - 4
reserved.

5. Value Clashes
• Conflict may be due to value differences between
– Generations
– women and men
People with different value priorities
– More government vs. less government
– Pro Life vs. Pro Choice
– Death penalty vs. Life time internment.
– Strong work/academic ethic vs. taking advantage of the system,
or cheating
– Gay marriage/rights vs. non support of Gay marriage/rights
Copyright © Houghton
Mifflin Company. All rights 13 - 5
reserved.

6. Culture Clashes
• Occurs between people
– from other countries
– between people from different parts of the U.S.
• Work force reflects cultural diversity
• Different cultural traditions can easily come
into conflict in the workplace – religion, food,
clothing, etc.
• Issues range from simple to complex
Copyright © Houghton
Mifflin Company. All rights 13 - 6
reserved.

7. Work Policies and Practices
• Conflict may happen when organizations
maintain confusing or arbitrary
– Rules
– Regulations
– Performance standards
• Often surface when managers don’t
understand that employees view policies as
unfair
Copyright © Houghton
Mifflin Company. All rights 13 - 7
reserved.

8. Adversarial Management
• Conflict can occur when managers view
employees and other managers with distrust
and suspicion
• View others as “the enemy”
• Leads to a lack of respect by employees
• Makes teamwork and cooperation difficult
Copyright © Houghton
Mifflin Company. All rights 13 - 8
reserved.

9. Noncompliance
• Workers refusing to comply with rules
• Or accept fair share of workload
• Makes other co-workers angry
Copyright © Houghton
Mifflin Company. All rights 13 - 9
reserved.

10. Competition for Scarce Resources
• Downsizing and cost cutting can lead to
destructive competition for scarce resources
• When decisions are not clearly explained,
workers suspect coworkers of devious tactics
Copyright © Houghton
Mifflin Company. All rights 13 - 10
reserved.

11. Personality Clashes
• People have differing
– Communication styles
– Temperaments
– Attitudes – Likes and dislikes
• People may not be able to identify cause of
dislike – mostly subconscious.
Copyright © Houghton
Mifflin Company. All rights 13 - 11
reserved.

12. What is your conflict style?
(From quiz)

13. Five Conflict Management Styles
• Dysfunctional families – Many of us grew up in families where
we didn’t learn to effectively communicate in relationships,
especially when it involves conflict – being assertive helps heal
and reduces our stress and conflict with others.
There are five basic styles of communication:
- Avoidance
- Accommodation
- Competition
- Compromise
- Collaboration

14. Five Conflict Management
Styles
Avoidance is a style (AS) in which individuals have developed a
pattern of avoiding expressing their opinions or feelings, protecting their rights, and
identifying and meeting their needs.
AS will:
•Avoid conflict
•Fall to assert themselves
•Allows others to infringe on their rights
•Tend to speak softy and apologetically
Issues:
•Avoidance can make conflict worse
•Avoidance demonstrates lack of care or concern
When is this style appropriate?
•Can be positive, especially if the conflict is too big or emotional to resolve without help
•Can give a group time to cool off – or allows group to avoid ‘hot' issues to get in the way

15. Five Conflict Management Styles
Accommodation is a style (ACS) in which individuals give in to
avoid a major blow up or controversy. Not a bad approach,
especially when conflict is pseudo or simple.
ACS will:
•Hope this approach makes the conflict go away
•Have a high need for approval – think this will make people like
them more
•Give in too quickly, and doesn’t allow discussion which is often
healthy for a group making decisions
When is this style appropriate?
•Accommodating others may cause the group to make a bad
decision, if more discussion isn’t allowed to happen

16. Five Conflict Management Styles
Competition is a style (CS) that people who have power or want more power
often seek to compete with others. Often referred to aggressive.
CS will:
•Try to dominate others
•Use humiliation to control others
•Have low frustration levels
•Blame others, instead of owning
the issues
When is style appropriate?
•Not always wrong to compete, if you know you aren’t wrong
•Also, if group members are suggesting something illegal or inappropriate
•Or, member keeps others in the group from destructive or inappropriate
behavior

17. Five Conflict Management Styles
Compromise ‘the big C’ (CS) is style that
attempts to find a middle ground – a solution
that meets all needs.
Issues:
•You win…I win, is the best case, however at
times nobody gets what they want.
•Or, some lose and some win, which is
expected…like a democracy. The majority win.
•What can happen to the minority?

18. Five Conflict Management Styles
Collaboration is a style (COS) where group
members work side-by-side, rather than going
after power, control, or winner takes all.
COS will:
•View conflict has something that needs to
be resolved, rather than a game where
people win or lose.
•COS leave personal grievances aside.
Works best:
•With a culturally diverse group
•When group has the time to take to work through discussion, and looking
all solutions to make sure everyone is happy with decision

19. Resolving Conflicts
Where do the styles fit?
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006,
Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights
Reserved

20. Dealing with Difficult People
Crazy - Makers
Passive Aggressive – is a style where
individuals appear passive on the surface
but are actually acting out anger in a subtle,
indirect, or behind the scenes way.
PA will:
•Mutter to themselves
•Use facial expressions that don’t’ match
•Deny there is a problem
•Become alienated from those around them
PA believe:
•They are weak and resentful, so I sabotage, frustrate and disrupt.
•I will appear cooperative but I’m not.

21. Dealing with Difficult Members
Recognizing Crazy maker Behavior
• Surprise you with requests
• Pressure to do something when you’re unsure
• Use relationships as leverage
• Isolate you from support
• Shift expectations and moods

22. Guidelines for Creating and Sustaining Healthy
Climates
• Learn to recognize and deal with Crazymakers
• Try to determine the communication conflict style of your
group members.
• Actively use communication to build climates
• Accept and confirm others
• Respect diversity in relationships
Just as we should respect others, you need to respect,
affirm, and assert yourself!
• Affirm and assert yourself
• Respond constructively to criticism

23. Crazy makers can be managed
Don’t expect them to respond to feelings –
Use statements that are factual, not emotional.
Don’t let them spoil you day – One needs to emotionally
separate their identity and self-esteem from their
negative behavior – Don’t take it personally!
Manage yourself in their presence
• Monitor your physical and nonverbal responses.
• Stay neutral – don’t show emotions show in your tone
of voice, facial expressions or gestures.
• Don’t give them the “power.”

24. Crazymakers can be managed
Manage and communicate expectations
• Don’t expect them to behave as you do.
• Be clear with them about your expectations.
Slow them Down – Tell them “You will get back to
them,” or “You don’t have all the information you
need to make a decisions.”
Ask lot’s of questions – This will help you sort out their
demands and determine what they want.

25. Misconceptions About Conflict
• Conflict should be avoided at all costs
• All conflict occurs because people do not
understand one another
• All conflict can be resolved
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006,
Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights
Reserved

26. Types of Conflict
• Pseudo-conflict
– People misunderstand one another
• Simple conflict
– People disagree about issues
• Ego-conflict
– Personalities clash
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006,
Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights
Reserved

27. Managing Pseudo Conflict
• Ask for clarification
• Establish supportive rather than defensive
climate
• Employ active listening skills
– Stop, look, listen, question, paraphrase
content, paraphrase feelings

28. Managing Simple Conflict
• Clarify perceptions of message
• Clarify issues
• Use structured problem solving approach
• Focus on issues
• Use facts versus opinions
• Compromise
• Make conflict group concern
• Prioritize conflict resolution
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006,
• Postpone decision
Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights
Reserved

29. Managing Ego-Conflict
• Don’t permit personal attacks
• Employ active listening
• Call for a “cooling off” period
• Focus on key issues
• Avoid judgment
• Use problem solving approach
• Speak slowly and calmly
• Agree to disagree
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006,
Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights
Reserved

30. What do you see?

31. It is a matter of perspective
• What do you see in the picture?
• Some people see an eagle and a beaver, and
other things.
Questions:
• Why do some people see an young or old woman, beaver, or
eagle?
• Is there a right way to see them?
• How did you feel about those who saw it differently? The
same?
• Was there ever a time when you saw something one way and
some else saw it differently?

32. Conflict – can be a matter of perspective
• Two people can look at the same picture and
see something different without either being
wrong, how might this affect a conflict?
• If something is more serious such as if
someone is pro life or pro choice, is there
right or wrong?
• What if each person sees the situation a
different way? How can they figure out a
resolution to the conflict if they are both
right?

33. The blind men and the Elephant

34. What did the blind men see?
• The moral of the story is that each one of us sees things exclusively within one’s
point of view. We should also try to understand other people’s points of view.
This will enable us to get a proper perspective on different situations and events.

35. Chapter 8
Encourage Supportive Communication
Different types of communication create supportive
and defensive climates in personal relationships.
 Interpersonal climates occur on a continuum
confirming to disconfirming.
 Confirming messages recognize that another person
exists, acknowledge that another matters to us, and
endorse what we believe is true.
 Disconfirming messages deny the person’s existence,
indicate the other person does not matter to us, and
reject another person’s feelings or thoughts.

36. Rewind - Say it better!
Disconfirming vs. confirming
Change evaluation to description
 You’re acting very immaturely.
Example:“I notice that you are getting upset by this situation.”
Change certainty to provisionalism
 The right thing to do is crystal clear
Example: “The right thing to do can be difficult to decide.”
Change strategy to spontaneity
 Don’t you owe me a favor from when I typed that paper for you last term?
Example, “Remember the term paper I helped you with last term? Do you think you could help me out with one of my own?”
Change control orientation to problem orientation
 I think we should move where I have the good job offer since I earn a larger salary than you anyway.
Example, “In terms of moving, what decision will make the most sense for us in terms of our financial position as well as our
relationship?
Change neutrality to empathy
 I can’t believe you got yourself into such a dumb predicament.
 Example, “This is tricky situation. Let’s see what we can do to help you address it.”
Change superiority to equality
 I don’t want to get involved in your disagreement.
 Example, “I can see where you’re coming from with this, and based on what you’ve said, it seems like it might be best to
talk with Susan directly about this issue.”

37. Aggression, Assertion, & Deference

38. Respond Constructively to
Criticism
Refusing to accept criticism is likely to erect barriers or
affect job performance reviews.
Seek more information - asking questions, paraphrasing what you have
heard to reduce tension.
Consider the criticism thoughtfully – Is it valid?
If you decide the criticism is valid, consider whether you want to
change how you act.
Thank the person who offered the criticism – sometimes is disarming
and keeps the door open for communication in the future.
Sometimes people are just difficult to deal with. They can be: rude,
inconsiderate, or just crazymakers. This calls for you to protect
yourself.

39. How to Promote Honest Interaction
and Dialogue
• Do not change mind too quickly
• Avoid easy conflict reducing techniques
• Seek different opinions
• Involve everyone in discussion
• Use variety of methods to reach
agreement
• Expand the number of ideas using various
techniques
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006,
Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights
Reserved

40. Be Other Oriented
• Give your idea to • Avoid opinionated
group statements that
• Do not assume indicate a closed
someone must win mind
or lose • Clarify
• Use group oriented misunderstandings
rather than self • Emphasize areas
oriented pronouns of agreement
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006,
Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights
Reserved

41. Sometimes - It’s all in how you
ask?

42. Advice from Grade School Children

43. Advise from the dog!
WAG MORE!
BARK LESS!

44. Advice for the coming week!

45. GROUPTHINK
“How could we have been so stupid?”
Q: Who knows where that quote came from?

46. GROUPTHINK
A: John F. Kennedy’s response to his and his advisers
decision to invade the Bay of Pigs.
The decision making process of this event and others,
such as:
• Watergate, the crash of flight 173, and the Monica
scandal have been studied and identified as
Groupthink
Q: Why did JFK think their actions were stupid. He and
his advisors were competent and intelligent?

47. GROUPTHINK
Q: How many of you avoid situations that
might involve conflict?
 Most people do not like conflict
 Groupthink is the absence of conflict
 Group members go along with the other
group members (because they are afraid
of authority or of making waves)
Conflict provides different
ideas and points of view that  Group members close themselves off to
if shared and discussed can input from those outside the group
led to greater ideas and
ultimately a better end.  Group members become paralyzed and
unable to see the errors of their ways
 To avoid Groupthink allow some
conflict…you’ll feel better in the end

48. Groupthink: Conflict Avoidance
• Is the illusion of agreement
• Type of thinking when group tries to reach
consensus without critical testing,
analyzing and evaluating ideas
• Results in ineffective consensus
• Too little conflict lowers quality of group
decision
• Group does not take time to examine
positive and negative consequences of its
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006,
decision Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights
Reserved

49. Symptoms of Groupthink
• Critical thinking not • Members apply
encouraged pressure to those who
do not support group
• Members think group
• Members believe they
can do no wrong
have reached true
• Members concerned consensus
about justifying • Members too
actions concerned with
reinforcing leader’s
beliefs
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006,
Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights
Reserved

50. Suggestions to Reduce Groupthink
• Encourage critical • Assign devil’s
thinking advocate role
• Be sensitive to • Subdivide to
status consider potential
• Invite someone problems &
from outside group solutions
• Use technology to
gather information
& evaluate ideas
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006,
Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights
Reserved

51. Symptoms of Groupthink
• Critical thinking not • Members apply
encouraged pressure to those who
do not support group
• Members think group
• Members believe they
can do no wrong
have reached true
• Members concerned consensus
about justifying • Members too
actions concerned with
reinforcing leader’s
beliefs
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006,
Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights
Reserved

52. Consensus: Reaching Agreement
Through Communication
• Consensus should not come too quickly
• Consensus does not come easily
• Consensus involves emphasizing areas of
agreement
• Groups that achieve consensus are likely to
maintain agreement
• To achieve consensus, some personal
preferences must be surrendered
• Postpone decision if consensus can not be
reached
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006,
Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights
Reserved

53. Suggestions for Reaching Consensus:
• Keep group oriented to goal
• Be sensitive to ideas and feelings of
others
• Promote honest interaction and dialogue
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006,
Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights
Reserved

54. Chapter 9 – Leadership
5 point exercise
1) When you think of leadership what comes to
mind?
2) Who do you think is a (past/recent) good
leader? Why?
3) Do you consider yourself a leader? Why?
4) Leadership style – Do after answering the
above questions.

55. Leadership – Chapter 11
Q: What do they have in
common?

56. Industry/Media Leaders
The Billionaire Club
• Two-thirds of the wealthiest people in the U.S.
added to their fortunes, boosting their
average net worth by $400 million to a record
$4.2 billion. ~ Forbes Magazine

57. Chapter 9 - Leaders
Definition:
Behavior or communication that influences,
guides, directs, or controls a group.
Dennis Gouran – suggests leadership constitutes
that behavior when groups experience difficulty
establishing the conditions necessary for making
the best possible choices.

58. Chapter 9 - Leadership Studies
• Trait perspective –
Historical reference only Intelligence
Good looking
Tall
Enthusiasm
Dominance
Self confidence
Social
participation
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, Egalitarianism
Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights
Reserved

59. “The first responsibility of a
leader is to define reality. The
last is to say thank you. In
between, the leader is servant.”
Max De Pree –
American Business person and writer
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006,
Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights
Reserved

60. Eastern Philosophy of Leadership
(Lao Tsu)
“The wicked leader is he who the people
despise
The good leader is he who the people revere
The great leader is he who the people say
‘We did it ourselves’.”
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

61. What is a strong leader
~ Forbes Magazine
• Strong leaders are great communicators not talkers
• How do they communicate?
• Communicate using social networks
• They write blogs, articles and use the media to discuss financial
information, corporate vision and strategy
• They review values and culture
• They note accomplishments and celebrate progress
• They also teach, encourage, inspire and motivate
• They express appreciation and gratitude
• They reassure and calm those around them
• They are articulate and never condescending

62. Forbes - Great Leaders
• Abraham Lincoln was the 16th President of the
United States, serving from March 1861 until his
assassination in April 1865.
• Two minute speech in 1863 at Gettysburg in the
middle of the most bloody war
• He stood where many had died to encourage
Americans to fight on for the survival of
representative democracy
• “Government of the people, by the people, for the
people, shall not perish from the earth.”
• He ended slavery in the US by signing the
Emancipation Proclamation.
Lincoln the movie –
Reviewers say it is Greatest strengths: Determination, persistence, beliefs,
greatest political and courage.
movie.

63. Forbes - Great Leaders
John Wooden, ULCA
•Taught his team how
to win
•How to be great men
•He was soft spoken,
humble, but led by
example
•Has written many
books on leadership

64. Forbes - Great Leaders
• George Washington, the founding
father of the United States.
• Leader of the American Revolution
and the first president of the U.S.
• His vision has endured more than
200 years
Greatest strengths:
• Foresight
• Vision
• Strategic planning
• His ability to lead people to success.

65. Forbes - Great Leaders
• Prime Minister of Britain from 1940 to 1945.
• Churchill led Great Britain against the Nazi
Germany during the World War II.
• He had seen the potential problem with the
Germans after WWI and wanted to Brits to
engage in WWII early on, but the Brits wouldn’t.
• When Britain became desperate they called him
after retirement.
Greatest traits:
• Fearlessness
• Determination
• Unyielding perseverance
• Undying devotion to his goal

66. Forbes - Great Leaders
• Nelson Mandela was the first S. African
president elected in fully democratic
elections.
• Mandela was the main players in the anti-
apartheid movements in the country and
served a 30 year prison sentence because
of being an apartheid.
Greatest traits:
• Determination to change apartheid
• Persistence
• Focus
• And, will
• No fear of being jailed.

67. Forbes - Great Leaders
• Steve Jobs co-founded Apple Computers with Stephen Wozniak.
Under his guidance
• The company pioneered a series of revolutionary technologies,
including the iPhone and iPad.
Greatest Traits:
1) The consummate salesman
• The most visible element of Jobs’s success was his ability to
convince people that they absolutely had to have whatever it was
that he had to offer.
2) The incredible judge of consumer behavior
• Other companies do focus groups to ask what customers want. That
never worked for Steve Jobs, because he knew what people wanted
long before they themselves knew.
3) The perfectionist
• Attention to detail has long been a hallmark of Apple’s products and
much of that can be attributed to the relentless focus of Steve Jobs.
Jobs pushed himself hard and everyone around him hard.
• The result was that workers were pushed to deliver things that they
themselves didn’t think possible.

68. Functional Perspective
Task leadership – Process leadership – Group
accomplishing group goals building and maintenance
• Releasing tension – Knowing
• Initiating – Getting the group to when to add humor, breaks, etc. to
begin the task. remove group from conflict, stress.
• Coordinating – One of the more
important leadership roles is • Gatekeeping – Guiding
coordinating activities and goals. discussion.
• Summarizing – Groups need • Encouraging – Improve the morale
someone to periodically of group can increase
summarize the activities. cohesiveness.
• Elaborating – Sometimes good • Mediating – Leadership aims at
ideas are ignored. A good leader resolving conflict between group
will focus on elaborating and members.
focusing on a good idea.
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006,
Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights
Reserved

69. Situational Perspective – Table 12.1
• Authoritarian
– Leader makes all policy decisions.
– Dictate all activity, steps, and vision.
– Work one on one with praise and criticism.
– Aloof from group.
• Democratic
– Policies are a matter of group discussion.
– Leader checks in at all times with group and follows up.
– Leader leaves decision of task to your group.
• Laissez-Faire
-- Leader participates at minimum.
-- Complete freedom for group.
--
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

70. Authoritian Leadership
• Adolf Hitler was extremely authoritarian. He required the population of the
Third Reich to accept everything that he said as absolute law, and was able
to impose a death sentence on anyone who failed to do so. Hitler was
obsessed with being in control, and with being the alpha male in a rigid male
dominance hierarchy.[12]
• Martha Stewart constructed her empire through her own special attention to
every detail. She was meticulous, demanding, thorough and scrupulous. She
flourished in her ventures and in using her authoritarian leadership style. [13]

71. Democratic Leadership
Consensus Takers - Leader gets input from
everyone – Bill Clinton an example – Polled all and
then made a decision.
Other example - Dwight D. Eisenhower
•Eisenhower was one of America's greatest
military commanders and the thirty-fourth
President of the United States.

72. Autocratic Leadership
• Autocratic leadership style works well if the leader is competent and
knowledgeable enough to decide about each and everything.
• Authoritative is considered one of the most effective leadership styles in
case there is some emergency and quick decisions need to be taken.
• Bill Gates adopted this style and has steered Microsoft toward great
success. According to Bill Gates, he had a vision when he took reins of the
company and then used all the resources available to make that vision a
reality.
• In the personal computer workplace, many operating conditions call for
urgent action, making this style of leadership effective. While Gates does
not exhibit this style consistently, his success can be judged by his
decision making process and the growth of the computer industry in the
world.[1

73. Leadership Patterns
• Communication that influences, guides,
directs or controls group
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006,
Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights
Reserved

74. Transformational Leadership
Four defining characteristics
•Individualized Consideration – the degree to which the leader attends to each follower's needs, acts as a mentor or coach to
the follower and listens to the follower's concerns and needs. The leader gives empathy and support, keeps communication open
and places challenges before the followers.
•Intellectual Stimulation – the degree to which the leader challenges assumptions, takes risks and solicits followers' ideas.
Leaders with this style stimulate and encourage creativity in their followers. They nurture and develop people who think
independently. For such a leader, learning is a value and unexpected situations are seen as opportunities to learn.
•Inspirational Motivation – the degree to which the leader articulates a vision that is appealing and inspiring to followers.
Leaders with inspirational motivation challenge followers with high standards, communicate optimism about future goals, and
provide meaning for the task at hand. Followers need to have a strong sense of purpose if they are to be motivated to act.
Purpose and meaning provide the energy that drives a group forward.
•The visionary aspects of leadership are supported by communication skills that make the vision understandable, precise,
powerful and engaging. The followers are willing to invest more effort in their tasks, they are encouraged and optimistic about
the future and believe in their abilities.
•Idealized Influence – Provides a role model for high ethical behavior, instills pride, gains respect and trust.
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006,
Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights
Reserved

75. Emergent Leadership in Small Groups
Minnesota Studies
• Leaders emerge through a “method of
residues”
• Members reject dictatorial candidates
• Accepted the contender with the optimum
blend of task efficiency and personal
consideration
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006,
Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights
Reserved

76. Leadership and Self-deception in
Organizations
• Leaders ignore upward communication
from non-managerial members
• Leaders must solicit communication from
lower-status members
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006,
Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights
Reserved