Speech problems
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Speech problems Dysphasia Overview: • A deficit in the higher language functions i.e. comprehension and generation. • Aphasia is a total absence. • Most commonly due to a left anterior circulation stroke. • If speech is internally consistent but nonsense, it is confusion not dysphasia. Receptive (Wernicke's) dysphasia • Temporal lobe lesion. • Patient can't follow a command e.g. lift a hand. If the problem is only with a series of commands, the more they can manage then the better the prognosis.
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Chapter 12: The Nervous System
This chapter discusses the nervous system and reviews suffixes like -phasia and -plegia. It describes aphasia as trouble with verbal communication or writing caused by brain damage, and discusses receptive and expressive aphasia. Paraplegia is defined as partial or complete paralysis of the lower half of the body resulting from spinal cord injury, and affects mobility but not use of the arms and hands. Many paraplegics use wheelchairs and can live normal lives with therapy, though some have medical complications like pressure sores.
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Paraplegia is a condition where the lower body is paralyzed due to spinal cord injury or conditions like spina bifida. Aphasia is a speech disorder where a person has difficulty speaking, reading, or writing due to lesions in the brain lobes that control language. Both conditions affect the central nervous system and require specialized rehabilitation to help patients regain independence and language skills.
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The document discusses aphasia, which is a disorder that results from damage to areas of the brain responsible for language, usually occurring on the left side. It causes impairments in language expression, comprehension, reading and writing. Aphasia is most commonly caused by strokes and can be diagnosed through tests of language abilities. There are different types of aphasia depending on the location of brain damage, and treatment involves speech therapy which may help with some recovery over time.
SPEECH DIFFICULTY
Speech is the process of producing specific sounds that convey meaning to
the listener. A speech disorder refers to any condition that affects a
person’s ability to produce sounds that create words.
Speech is one of the main ways in which people communicate their
thoughts, feelings, and ideas with others. The act of speaking requires the
precise coordination of multiple body parts, including the head, neck , chest,
and abdomen .
Speech disorders can affect the way a person creates sounds to form
words. Certain voice disorders may also be considered speech disorde
In this slide all other information also mention like type of the speech difficulty and their sign and symptoms and also explained the treatment or promotion of normal speech
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- Aphasia is an acquired communication disorder that impairs language processing but not intelligence. It can affect speaking, comprehension, reading and writing.
- The brain has specialized language modules that can be impaired by damage to areas like Broca's area in the frontal lobe, affecting expressive language abilities.
- Treatment strategies include impairment-based therapies to repair language skills, compensatory strategies using alternative communication methods, and participation-based therapies engaging family/social support networks.
aphasia
Aphasia is an acquired communication disorder that impairs a person's ability to process language. It can cause problems with speaking, listening, reading, and writing. The type and severity of aphasia depends on the location of brain damage, usually in the left hemisphere. Broca's aphasia involves non-fluent speech and impaired comprehension of syntax. Wernicke's aphasia features fluent but meaningless speech and impaired comprehension. Global aphasia combines deficits of both Broca's and Wernicke's aphasia.
Recommended
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This chapter discusses the nervous system and reviews suffixes like -phasia and -plegia. It describes aphasia as trouble with verbal communication or writing caused by brain damage, and discusses receptive and expressive aphasia. Paraplegia is defined as partial or complete paralysis of the lower half of the body resulting from spinal cord injury, and affects mobility but not use of the arms and hands. Many paraplegics use wheelchairs and can live normal lives with therapy, though some have medical complications like pressure sores.
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Paraplegia is a condition where the lower body is paralyzed due to spinal cord injury or conditions like spina bifida. Aphasia is a speech disorder where a person has difficulty speaking, reading, or writing due to lesions in the brain lobes that control language. Both conditions affect the central nervous system and require specialized rehabilitation to help patients regain independence and language skills.
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The document discusses aphasia, which is a disorder that results from damage to areas of the brain responsible for language, usually occurring on the left side. It causes impairments in language expression, comprehension, reading and writing. Aphasia is most commonly caused by strokes and can be diagnosed through tests of language abilities. There are different types of aphasia depending on the location of brain damage, and treatment involves speech therapy which may help with some recovery over time.
SPEECH DIFFICULTY
Speech is the process of producing specific sounds that convey meaning to
the listener. A speech disorder refers to any condition that affects a
person’s ability to produce sounds that create words.
Speech is one of the main ways in which people communicate their
thoughts, feelings, and ideas with others. The act of speaking requires the
precise coordination of multiple body parts, including the head, neck , chest,
and abdomen .
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words. Certain voice disorders may also be considered speech disorde
In this slide all other information also mention like type of the speech difficulty and their sign and symptoms and also explained the treatment or promotion of normal speech
Brocas Aphasia
- Aphasia is an acquired communication disorder that impairs language processing but not intelligence. It can affect speaking, comprehension, reading and writing.
- The brain has specialized language modules that can be impaired by damage to areas like Broca's area in the frontal lobe, affecting expressive language abilities.
- Treatment strategies include impairment-based therapies to repair language skills, compensatory strategies using alternative communication methods, and participation-based therapies engaging family/social support networks.
aphasia
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2. Phonological disorders
3. Disfluency
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1. Central Mechanisms:
Depending on the integration of the higher brain centers for symbolization (speech centers), mainly in the dominant hemisphere.
Lesion leads to Dysphasia or Aphasia.
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A. Articulation:
Lesion leads to Dysarthria or Anarthria.
B. Phonation:
Lesion leads to Dysphonia or Aphonia.
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This document discusses aphasia, which is an impairment of language abilities caused by brain damage. It can affect speech production, comprehension, reading, or writing. The most common causes are stroke, brain injury, tumor or dementia. There are different types of aphasia depending on which language abilities are impaired. Broca's aphasia affects speech production, making it effortful and halting. Wernicke's aphasia affects comprehension. Anomic aphasia causes difficulty naming things. Related disorders like apraxia affect motor planning for speech. Around 1 million Americans have aphasia due to stroke or other brain damage. Communication strategies are suggested to help people with aphasia still communicate effectively.
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Results in weight less than 85% of that expected, or BMI 17 is mild.
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This document discusses different types of paralysis that affect the nervous system. Hemiplegia is paralysis of one side of the body, monoplegia is paralysis of a single limb, and quadriplegia/tetraplegia is paralysis of all four limbs. Paraplegia is paralysis of the lower extremities. Congenital paralysis seen in premature or low birth weight babies can result from maternal illness or chemical exposure. It is often associated with cerebral palsy, which causes lack of motor skills. Acquired paralysis can come from spinal cord injuries, which sever communication between nerves and the brain, causing paralysis below the injury site. Different types of aphasia are discussed which affect speech abilities.
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Aphasia is a language disorder caused by damage to the brain, typically from a stroke or head injury. There are several types of aphasia that are distinguished by their symptoms and the areas of the brain that are damaged. Treatment for aphasia depends on the individual and may include speech and language therapy. While recovery is possible, aphasia can be difficult for those who have it and their loved ones. Current research aims to better understand aphasia and identify new treatment approaches.
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A speech disorder is a condition in which a person has problems creating or forming the speech sounds needed to communicate with others. This can make the child's speech difficult to understand.
Common speech disorders are:
1. Articulation disorders
2. Phonological disorders
3. Disfluency
4. Voice disorders or resonance disorders
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This document provides an overview of aphasia and aphasia syndromes. It defines aphasia as an acquired language disorder resulting from brain damage. The major aphasia syndromes discussed are Broca's aphasia (nonfluent speech with relatively preserved comprehension), Wernicke's aphasia (fluent but meaningless speech with impaired comprehension), global aphasia (combination of Broca's and Wernicke's deficits), conduction aphasia (impaired repetition with otherwise intact language), and pure word deafness (isolated auditory comprehension deficit). Each syndrome is characterized by its pattern of impaired and preserved language functions as well as its associated neurological deficits and lesion location.
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The document discusses the suffixes -phasia and -esthesia as they relate to the nervous system. -phasia refers to speech or phonation and is derived from the Greek word for utterance. Common conditions that use this suffix include aphasia, which is the loss of ability to speak, read, write or comprehend language, and dysphasia, which refers to difficulties communicating verbally. Dysphasia can be expressive, affecting speech production, or receptive, affecting the ability to understand language.
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This document provides descriptions of various speech, language, and communication disorders. It discusses disorders that can affect the ability to express or understand language like aphasia, which is an impairment of language caused by brain injury. It also describes disorders like dysarthria that affect speech production, as well as disorders involving the structures of the mouth like cleft lip and palate. Additionally, it outlines communication disorders and therapies, including those that require augmentative aids, voice therapies, and accent modification training.
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This document provides guidance on examining patients with aphasia by assessing 6 areas: spontaneous speech, comprehension, repetition, confrontation naming, reading, and writing. It describes characteristics of fluent and non-fluent speech, as well as semantic and phonemic paraphasic errors. Testing comprehension involves following commands of increasing complexity. Repetition is generally better preserved in extrasylvian aphasias. The classic aphasia syndromes - Broca's, Wernicke's, global, transcortical motor, conduction, and transcortical sensory/mixed - are outlined based on patterns of speech, comprehension, and repetition deficits and their associated lesion locations.
Speech disorders
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1. Central Mechanisms:
Depending on the integration of the higher brain centers for symbolization (speech centers), mainly in the dominant hemisphere.
Lesion leads to Dysphasia or Aphasia.
2. Peripheral Mechanisms:
A. Articulation:
Lesion leads to Dysarthria or Anarthria.
B. Phonation:
Lesion leads to Dysphonia or Aphonia.
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This document discusses the management of craniofacial anomalies. It begins by defining craniofacial anomalies as congenital deformities of the cranium and face that interfere with physical and mental well-being. It then discusses several specific conditions: Hox homeobox network patterning of the craniofacial region; neurocristopathies resulting from neural crest cell migration issues; etiologies including genetic and environmental factors; and features of cleft lip and palate, hemifacial microsomia, craniosynostosis, and other craniofacial dysplasias. The document provides details on the characteristics, causes, and dental/skeletal implications of several craniofacial anomalies.
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The document discusses various areas of the brain involved in language processing and production. It describes Wernicke's area in the temporal lobe which processes auditory and visual language inputs and connects to Broca's area in the frontal lobe which processes language outputs. Damage to these areas can cause different types of aphasias - nonfluent aphasia results from Broca's area lesions and causes slow, effortful speech, while fluent aphasia comes from Wernicke's area lesions and produces meaningless speech. The angular gyrus also contributes to language processing and lesions there cause anomic aphasia characterized by naming difficulties.
Speech sound disorders
The document provides information about a workshop on speech sound disorders presented by Fouzia Saleemi. It discusses various types of speech sound disorders including articulation disorders, phonological disorders, childhood apraxia of speech, and dysarthria. It outlines the stages of the speaking process and various classification systems and intervention approaches for treating speech sound disorders in children, including core vocabulary therapy, cycles therapy, dynamic temporal and tactile cueing, and minimal pair therapies.
Aphasia and Other Related Disorders
This document discusses aphasia, which is an impairment of language abilities caused by brain damage. It can affect speech production, comprehension, reading, or writing. The most common causes are stroke, brain injury, tumor or dementia. There are different types of aphasia depending on which language abilities are impaired. Broca's aphasia affects speech production, making it effortful and halting. Wernicke's aphasia affects comprehension. Anomic aphasia causes difficulty naming things. Related disorders like apraxia affect motor planning for speech. Around 1 million Americans have aphasia due to stroke or other brain damage. Communication strategies are suggested to help people with aphasia still communicate effectively.
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Pyscholinguistics what are speech language disorders
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Key features:
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Results in weight less than 85% of that expected, or BMI 17 is mild.
Fear of weight gain.
Feeling fat when thin.
Endocrine dysfunction: amenorrhea for 3 months, or ↓libido in men.
Other features:
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Sensations: cold sensitive, dizzy.
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Dopamine theory:
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Epidemiology:
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Medicos PDF is a platform where students can download their own medical books for free and share with their Medical friends.
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Mnemonic:
Observe The Patient Really F'ing Carefully.
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Observation
Inspect carefully and for a good amount of time, moving around and crouching to make sure you properly look, including under feet and/or on both sides of hands (turn them over).
Look for SWIFT:
Scarring, and ask if there's any you can't see.
Wasting
Involuntary movements.
Fasciculations: take time, look in plane.
Tremor
Upper limb:
Ask if left or right handed.
Pronator drift: have them extend arms palms up, eyes closed. If there is an UMN lesion, contralateral pronation is stronger, causing pronation ± drift. If there is a cerebellar lesion, the contralateral arm may drift upwards.
Limb rebound: have them push their outstretched, upturned palms against your straight arm. If there is a cerebellar hemisphere lesion, the ipsilateral arm will jump up when you move your arm away.
Hodgkin's lymphoma
Hodgkin's lymphoma is a type of lymphoma characterized by the presence of Reed-Sternberg cells. It represents 20% of lymphomas and is a B-cell cancer that commonly involves lymph nodes in the neck. Signs and symptoms include painless swollen lymph nodes and B symptoms such as weight loss, fever, and night sweats. Staging involves imaging tests and determines prognosis and treatment, which typically consists of chemotherapy and radiation therapy. Complications can include infection, superior vena cava obstruction, and secondary cancers from treatment. With treatment, 5-year survival rates are 90% for early stage disease and 75% for later stages.
Labour complications
Non-progressive labour
Management
Steps in managing non-progressive 1st stage are similar to induction of labour, but skipping cervical ripening:
First: analgesia, empty bladder, and ensure membranes ruptured. Artificial rupture if required.
If dilating
Non-progressive 2nd stage:
If fetal malposition (OP or OT): rotate manually, rotation ventouse, or Kielland's forceps.
If position correct(ed) (OA): oxytocin → if unsuccessful, traction ventouse or forceps.
C-section if above steps fail.
Complications
Postpartum hemorrhage.
Uterine rupture.
Fistula
Shoulder dystocia.
Hypoxia
Gestational diabetes (gdm)
Gestational diabetes (GDM)
Pathophysiology
↑Progesterone and cortisol → ↑insulin resistance → ↑glucose in previously non-diabetic woman.
Usually develops at 24-28 weeks.
See separate page on diabetes management in pregnancy for women with pre-existing diabetes.
Risk factors
MACROS:
Medical or family history of GDM, macrosomia, or T2 diabetes.
Age >40 years.
Cystic: PCOS.
Race: non-white, including South Asian and black Caribbean.
Obese
Smoking
Investigations
If there are risk factors, do oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) after fasting overnight:
Check plasma glucose, give 75 g glucose, then repeat plasma glucose after 2 hours.
≥5.6 mmol/L fasting OR ≥7.8 mmol/L at 2h = GDM.
Who and when to test:
If they have a past history of GDM or BMI ≥40, test at 18 weeks and re-test at 28 weeks if normal.
All other risk factors: test once at 24-28 weeks.
Check HbA1c at diagnosis to identify any pre-existing type 2 diabetes.
Ectopic pregnancy
Pathophysiology and epidemiology
Implantation of a fertilised egg outside of the uterus. Almost uniformly unviable.
Affects 1/100 pregnancies.
98% are tubal, usually in the ampulla. Remainder are in the ovaries, cervix, and peritoneum, the latter sometimes carrying to the 3rd trimester.
Eventually, trophoblast invasion of the tubal wall can cause tubal rupture and potentially major haemorrhage. However, many cases resolve spontaneously without rupture.
Presentation
Typical presentation:
Patients usually present 6-8 weeks after last period, though 30% present before a missed period.
Common symptoms are PV bleeding (dark or fresh) – which can occur with or without rupture – and/or abdominal or pelvic pain. However, many patients are asymptomatic.
Other possible features:
Syncope and dizziness.
Shoulder tip pain.
Painful defecation and urination.
Diarrhoea and vomiting.
Adnexal mass or big uterus.
Cervical excitation
Sudden rupture: peritonism and shock.
Pelvic inflammatory disease (pid)
Pathophysiology
Acute inflammation of the upper genital tract – the uterus or adnexa – from an ascending infection – usually chlamydia or gonorrhea (25%). May lead to epithelial damage thus allowing further pathogen entry.
Involves any combination of endometritis, salpingitis, tubo-ovarian abscess, or pelvic peritonitis.
Rarer causes: Gardnerella vaginalis, H. influenzae, Strep agalactiae (Group B Strep), CMV.
Often no pathogen is found.
Signs and symptoms
Symptoms:
Varies from asymptomatic to severe.
Pain: lower abdominal (often bilateral), lower back, and deep dyspareunia.
Systemic: fever, nausea and vomiting.
Discharge and bleeding: cervical or vaginal mucopurulent discharge, postcoital or intermenstrual bleeding.
On bimanual examination, tenderness in the uterus, adnexa, and cervix ('cervical excitation').
Dysphagia
Dysphagia
Difficulty swallowing.
Causes
Intraluminal:
Infection: candidiasis, pharyngitis, retropharyngeal abscess.
Oesophagitis
Foreign body.
Polyps
Intramural:
Benign strictures (GORD) or malignant strictures.
Achalasia
Oesophageal web (Plummer Vinson syndrome): iron deficiency anaemia leads to desquamated epithelium. Commonest in middle-aged women.
Oesophageal ring (Schatzki ring): ring of mucosal tissue.
Oesophageal spasm.
Systemic sclerosis.
Extramural:
Pharyngeal pouch.
Rolling hiatus hernia.
Malignancy
Retrosternal goitre.
Thoracic artery aneurysm.
Neurological:
Stroke, myasthenia gravis, MS, MND, Parkinson's.
See bulbar and pseudobulbar palsy.
Cardiomyopathy
Cardiomyopathy
Definition
Abnormal structure or function of the myocardium.
Newer definitions require it to be unexplained by ischaemic, hypertensive, or valvular disease, with the term limited to myocardial diseases with known genetic, morphological, and/or functional characteristics.
It often leads to heart failure, and in rarer cases, sudden cardiac death.
Dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM)
Pathophysiology and epidemiology
Commonest cardiomyopathy. Exact prevalence unclear but probably more than 1/500. Can present at any age.
Features:
Dilated chambers.
Systolic dysfunction.
↓Cardiac output.
Causes:
Idiopathic
Familial, 2/3 of which are autosomal dominant.
Cardiovascular: ischaemia, HTN, valve disease. See 'Definition' above about why this isn't strictly speaking 'cardiomyopathy'.
Myocarditis: viral, Chagas disease.
Alcohol
Pregnancy: Peripartum cardiomyopathy.
Stress: Takotsubo cardiomyopathy.
Tachycardia: 'tachymyopathy', usually in chronic SVT such as atrial flutter or AF.
Multi-system disease: thyrotoxicosis, sarcoidosis, haemochromatosis.
Burns
Burn depths
Superficial epidermal (1st degree)
Commonly due to sunburn.
Red, painful, peels.
Heals in days and leaves no scar.
Dermal (2nd degree)
Defining feature: blistering.
Superficial dermal (aka partial thickness):
Pink below blister, blanches on pressure, painful.
Heals in 2–3 weeks and leaves no scar.
Deep dermal (aka full thickness):
Deep red below blister from vasodilation, or red dots (vessels) on white background. No or slow blanching.
May be sensory changes.
>3 weeks to heal, and leaves scar.
Subdermal (3rd degree)
Damage extends into subcutaneous tissue.
White (or charred), painless (insensate), leathery skin.
Heals slowly by contraction.
Leg ulcers
Definitions
Ulcer: discontinuity of skin with complete break in epidermis and possibly dermis and subcutaneous tissue.
Erosion: partial break in epidermis. Appears bright red and weepy.
Causes
Trauma and/or internal pathology.
Types: arterial, venous, vasculitis, or neuropathic. For the latter, see diabetic foot, the commonest cause of neuropathic ulceration.
Rash
Rash history
Much of the diagnosis comes from examining the rash or lesion itself, but history taking is still important.
History of presenting complaint
Features of the rash:
Evolution of rash/lesion over time.
Onset at multiple sites and/or symmetrical? Suggests an internal cause.
Does sun exposure make it worse (e.g. SLE) or better (e.g. psoriasis)?
Associated symptoms:
Itch (common) and pain (uncommon), both of which can be explored with SOCRATES.
Ooze or weeping? Suggests eczema.
Loosing sleep from discomfort?
Possible causes:
Contact with substances at work or as part of a hobby. May cause allergic or irritant contact dermatitis.
Medications.
Sun exposure history if you suspect cancer:
Do you tan/burn often?
Sunbed use.
Lived abroad?
Worked outside?
The medicos PDF app was used to collect this information. I stumbled discovered this amazing app when searching for various slides and books and decided to share it with you all. The Google Play Store has a free version of the app.
Cardiac medications
ACE inhibitors (ACEi) and angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARB)
Drugs
ACEi include enalapril, ramipril, and lisinopril.
ARBs include losartan and candesartan.
Mechanism
Reduce levels (ACEi) or effects (ARB) of angiotensin II.
Angiotensin II increases BP via systemic vasoconstriction, sodium retention, and aldosterone and ADH release.
Lower efficacy in black patients, so not 1st line in this group.
The medicos PDF app was used to collect this information. I stumbled discovered this amazing app when searching for various slides and books and decided to share it with you all. The Google Play Store has a free version of the app.
Bradycardias and conduction defects
Bradycardias and conduction defects
Sinus bradycardia
Sinus rhythm
Causes
Myocardial: inferior MI, myocarditis.
CV drugs: β-blockers, α2-agonists (clonidine), rate-limiting CCBs, digoxin, amiodarone.
CNS drugs: opioids, BZD.
Sick sinus syndrome
Metabolic: ↑K+, hypothyroidism, hypothermia.
Physiological states: high levels of fitness, pain.
Anorexia nervosa.
Cushing reflex: response to ↑ICP.
Sick sinus syndrome
Aka sinus node dysfunction.
Usually due to idiopathic SA node fibrosis. May also be secondary to cardiomyopathy, infiltrative disease (amyloidosis, sarcoidosis, haemochromatosis), drugs (digoxin, β-blockers), or metabolic problems (↑K+, ↓Ca2+, ↓thyroid).
Causes sinus bradycardia, sinus arrest, or exit block. May also cause episodes of tachycardia (tachy-brady syndrome, brady-tachy syndrome).
Keywords:
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Cardiovascular examination
The medicos PDF app was used to collect this information. I stumbled discovered this amazing app when searching for various slides and books and decided to share it with you all. The Google Play Store has a free version of the app.
Importance for learners:
MBBS/Dental
Nursing
Pharmacy
Microbiology
BPH
MPH
MDS
MD
Ophthalmology
Paramedics
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Speech problems
- 1. Speech problems Slide made with the assistance of Medicos PDF app. Find hundreds of books, slides, notes and articles from: https://bookapp.page.link/slideshare
- 2. Dysphasia Overview: A deficit in the higher language functions i.e. comprehension and generation. Aphasia is a total absence. Most commonly due to a left anterior circulation stroke. If speech is internally consistent but nonsense, it is confusion not dysphasia. Receptive (Wernicke's) dysphasia Temporal lobe lesion. Patient can't follow a command e.g. lift a hand. If the problem is only with a series of commands, the more they can manage then the better the prognosis. Expressive (Broca's) dysphasia Frontal lobe lesion. Can't generate speech.
- 3. Nominal aphasia Dominant posterior temporo-parietal lesion. Difficulty in recalling specific words or names, but rest of speech normal. Patient may not be able to name specific objects shown to them. Conduction dysphasia Longitudinal fasciculus lesion. Patient can understand and speak, but can't repeat a phrase.
- 4. Dysarthria Poor articulation. Causes: bulbar or pseudobulbar palsy, or (less commonly) facial nerve palsy. Examination: test tongue (say la la la) and palate (ka ka ka) for bulbar function, and lips (ma ma ma) for facial nerve function. Dysphonia Reduced speech volume due to weak respiratory muscles or vocal cords. Causes: (pseudo)bulbar palsy, myasthenia gravis, Parkinson's, recurrent laryngeal nerve invasion.
- 5. Bulbar and pseudobulbar palsy The 'bulb' refers to the medulla, and bulbar palsy is dysfunction of the cranial nerves – 9 to 12 – whose nuclei lie within it. It presents with dysphonia, dysarthria, and/or dysphagia. Bulbar palsy • LMN lesion of the medulla (nuclei) or cranial nerve fibres. • Causes: Brainstem stroke or tumour. MND, especially progressive bulbar palsy. Guillain Barré. Myasthenia gravis. Central pontine myelinolysis. Iatrogenic: surgery, radiotherapy. • Distinguishing features: Fasciculating tongue which may sit in one side of the mouth.
- 6. Pseudobulbar palsy • UMN lesion of the corticobulbar tract. Commoner than bulbar palsy. • Causes: Stroke e.g. of the bilateral internal capsule. MS Progressive supranuclear palsy MND Tumours higher in the brainstem. Syphilis • Distinguishing features: Bilateral defects. Paralysed tongue with donald duck speech. Also non-bulbar symptoms – as corticobulbar tract supplies all motor cranial nerves – including hyperreflexia (jaw jerk, gag) and facial paralysis. Emotional lability.
- 7. Thank You • Information gathered with the assistance of Medicos PDF app. Happy to share this information with Medical students. Find hundreds of books, slides, notes and articles from https://bookapp.page.link/slideshare