This document discusses various properties of mixtures, including solutions and colloids. It defines key terms like solvent, solute, and aqueous solutions. It describes factors that affect solubility such as temperature, nature of solute and solvent, and pressure. It also covers gas solubility based on Henry's Law. Finally, it discusses quantitative expressions of concentration including molarity and molality, as well as colligative properties of solutions like boiling point elevation.
The document discusses concentration of solutions in terms of molarity. It defines molarity as moles of solute per liter of solution. It provides the key formula for calculating molarity given moles of solute and volume of solution. Examples are shown for calculating molarity, moles of solute, and volume of solution given different variables. Dilution of solutions is also discussed, where the number of moles of solute remains constant but volume changes upon addition of solvent.
The document contains a chemistry problem set with 10 questions:
1) It asks to calculate the molarity of three aqueous solutions.
2) It asks to calculate the percentage by mass of nitric acid in a 16 M commercial solution.
3) It asks to calculate the osmotic pressure of a solution formed by dissolving aspirin in water.
4) It asks to order solutions by increasing boiling point.
5) It defines hydrophobic and hydrophilic colloids and provides examples.
6) It asks to identify colloids as hydrophobic or hydrophilic.
The document provides an overview of colligative properties of solutions, which are physical properties that depend on the number of solute particles in solution rather than the chemical identity of the solute. Examples of colligative properties discussed include vapor pressure lowering, boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, and osmotic pressure. Formulas are provided to calculate these colligative properties based on variables like molality, vapor pressure of the pure solvent, and temperature.
This document discusses physical and chemical properties of substances. Physical properties can be qualitative, describing observable characteristics like color, texture, or odor. They can also be quantitative, involving measured values like melting point, density, or viscosity. Chemical properties describe how a substance interacts or reacts with other substances, such as combustibility or reaction with acids. Examples of qualitative observations include different states of matter, crystal forms, and textures. Quantitative observations include melting/boiling points, solubility, hardness, mass, volume, density, and corrosion rates. Chemical properties involve a substance's ability to react and form new substances through combustion or acid reactions.
The document discusses key concepts about solutions including:
1) Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two or more substances where the solute is dispersed uniformly throughout the solvent.
2) For a solution to form, the intermolecular forces between solute and solvent particles must be strong enough to overcome interactions between pure components.
3) The enthalpy change of dissolving depends on the energy changes of separating solute and solvent particles and forming new interactions between them.
This document discusses enthalpy and Hess's Law. It defines enthalpy as the total kinetic and potential energy of a system at constant pressure. The change in enthalpy (ΔH) of a reaction is equal to the enthalpy of the products minus the enthalpy of the reactants. For exothermic reactions where heat is released, ΔH is negative, and for endothermic reactions where heat is absorbed, ΔH is positive. Hess's Law states that the enthalpy change of a reaction is the same whether it occurs in one step or multiple steps. ΔH values can be used to calculate the enthalpy change of unknown reactions using known reaction enthalpies.
The document discusses enthalpy change (ΔH) which is the amount of heat released or absorbed during a chemical reaction under constant pressure. ΔH is calculated as the enthalpy of products minus reactants. Standard enthalpy change (ΔH°) is measured under standard temperature and pressure conditions. Some key enthalpy terms discussed include standard enthalpy of formation (ΔHf°), enthalpy of combustion (ΔHc°), enthalpy of solution (ΔHsoln), and enthalpy of neutralization. Practice problems are provided to calculate enthalpy changes using experimental heat and temperature change data.
The document discusses concentration of solutions in terms of molarity. It defines molarity as moles of solute per liter of solution. It provides the key formula for calculating molarity given moles of solute and volume of solution. Examples are shown for calculating molarity, moles of solute, and volume of solution given different variables. Dilution of solutions is also discussed, where the number of moles of solute remains constant but volume changes upon addition of solvent.
The document contains a chemistry problem set with 10 questions:
1) It asks to calculate the molarity of three aqueous solutions.
2) It asks to calculate the percentage by mass of nitric acid in a 16 M commercial solution.
3) It asks to calculate the osmotic pressure of a solution formed by dissolving aspirin in water.
4) It asks to order solutions by increasing boiling point.
5) It defines hydrophobic and hydrophilic colloids and provides examples.
6) It asks to identify colloids as hydrophobic or hydrophilic.
The document provides an overview of colligative properties of solutions, which are physical properties that depend on the number of solute particles in solution rather than the chemical identity of the solute. Examples of colligative properties discussed include vapor pressure lowering, boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, and osmotic pressure. Formulas are provided to calculate these colligative properties based on variables like molality, vapor pressure of the pure solvent, and temperature.
This document discusses physical and chemical properties of substances. Physical properties can be qualitative, describing observable characteristics like color, texture, or odor. They can also be quantitative, involving measured values like melting point, density, or viscosity. Chemical properties describe how a substance interacts or reacts with other substances, such as combustibility or reaction with acids. Examples of qualitative observations include different states of matter, crystal forms, and textures. Quantitative observations include melting/boiling points, solubility, hardness, mass, volume, density, and corrosion rates. Chemical properties involve a substance's ability to react and form new substances through combustion or acid reactions.
The document discusses key concepts about solutions including:
1) Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two or more substances where the solute is dispersed uniformly throughout the solvent.
2) For a solution to form, the intermolecular forces between solute and solvent particles must be strong enough to overcome interactions between pure components.
3) The enthalpy change of dissolving depends on the energy changes of separating solute and solvent particles and forming new interactions between them.
This document discusses enthalpy and Hess's Law. It defines enthalpy as the total kinetic and potential energy of a system at constant pressure. The change in enthalpy (ΔH) of a reaction is equal to the enthalpy of the products minus the enthalpy of the reactants. For exothermic reactions where heat is released, ΔH is negative, and for endothermic reactions where heat is absorbed, ΔH is positive. Hess's Law states that the enthalpy change of a reaction is the same whether it occurs in one step or multiple steps. ΔH values can be used to calculate the enthalpy change of unknown reactions using known reaction enthalpies.
The document discusses enthalpy change (ΔH) which is the amount of heat released or absorbed during a chemical reaction under constant pressure. ΔH is calculated as the enthalpy of products minus reactants. Standard enthalpy change (ΔH°) is measured under standard temperature and pressure conditions. Some key enthalpy terms discussed include standard enthalpy of formation (ΔHf°), enthalpy of combustion (ΔHc°), enthalpy of solution (ΔHsoln), and enthalpy of neutralization. Practice problems are provided to calculate enthalpy changes using experimental heat and temperature change data.
Colligative properties of dilute solution is important topic of physical chemistry. mainly cover types with application of it day to day life... must to watch and share
Chapter 2.2: Solutions and Their Properties (Solution Stoichiometry)marvinnbustamante1
The document outlines topics covered in General Chemistry II for week 4, including:
1) Expressing concentration of solutions using various units
2) Performing stoichiometric calculations for reactions in solution
3) Describing the effect of concentration on colligative properties of solutions
It then provides examples of stoichiometric calculations involving reactions in aqueous solution, determining the amounts of reactants and products based on the amounts given of one substance.
Colligative properties depend only on the number of dissolved particles in solution and not on their identity. The key colligative properties are vapor pressure lowering, boiling point elevation, and freezing point depression. Vapor pressure lowering occurs because solute particles decrease the number of solvent particles that can evaporate from the surface. Boiling point elevation and freezing point depression occur because adding solute particles lowers the vapor pressure of the solvent, requiring more energy for evaporation or freezing. The degree of change in boiling point or freezing point depends on the molality of the solution.
This document provides an overview of intermolecular forces, liquids, solids, and phase changes. It discusses topics such as the kinetic molecular model of liquids and solids, different types of intermolecular forces (dipole-dipole, ion-dipole, hydrogen bonding, dispersion), properties of liquids influenced by intermolecular forces, and phase diagrams. The document also examines the structure and properties of water, types of solids including crystalline and amorphous, and characteristics of molecular, ionic, metallic and network solids.
This document discusses key aspects of what it means to be a human person from a philosophical and theological perspective. It addresses how human persons are:
1) Historical beings who are products of their experiences and continue developing over time through experiences that shape who they become.
2) Embodied spirits who exist in a physical world with both capabilities and limitations. While the body has constraints, human intellect allows people to transcend limitations.
3) Beings with intrinsic worth and dignity who deserve respect, as embodied temples for the Holy Spirit dwelling within each person.
This document provides an overview of key topics in General Chemistry II to be covered in weeks 3-4. These include:
1) Expressing the concentration of solutions using various units like percent by mass, molarity, molality, etc.
2) Performing stoichiometric calculations for reactions in solution.
3) Describing how concentration affects colligative properties of solutions.
4) Differentiating colligative properties of nonelectrolyte and electrolyte solutions.
5) Calculating properties like boiling point elevation and freezing point depression from concentration.
The document discusses intermolecular forces and how they influence the properties of matter. It describes the main types of intermolecular forces - hydrogen bonding, dipole-dipole interactions, and London dispersion forces - and how they affect boiling points, melting points, and phase changes. Stronger intermolecular forces require more energy to overcome during changes of state from solid to liquid to gas.
The document discusses how to calculate the mass of products formed in chemical reactions using stoichiometric calculations and identifying the limiting reactant. Examples are provided of determining the limiting reactant and calculating the mass of products from the masses of reactants given for different chemical
This document discusses the cardinal virtues (prudence, justice, temperance, fortitude) and theological virtues (faith, hope, charity) of Catholicism. It provides definitions and meanings for each of the seven capital virtues: chastity, temperance, charity, diligence, patience, kindness, and humility. It explains that the cardinal virtues are natural and help govern our actions through reason, while the theological virtues are supernatural and infused by God and have God as their object. Overall, the document serves to outline and explain the key virtues of Catholic theology.
Quantitative Determination of Total Hardness in Drinking Water by Complexomet...Nathan Nogales
This experiment aims to determine the total hardness of drinking water using a complexometric titration with EDTA. The standardization of EDTA is performed using a calcium carbonate standard. Reactions involving the calcium-EDTA and magnesium-EDTA complexes are discussed. The addition of magnesium chloride is meant to create a sharper titration endpoint but the amount added was insignificant compared to the EDTA. Analysis of a water sample from Viva found it to have a total hardness of 192.49 ppm CaCO3, which is 25.8% lower than the value claimed.
The document discusses Hess's law, which states that the heat of reaction is the same whether a chemical process occurs in one or multiple steps. Specifically:
- Hess's law allows adding together multiple chemical equations to determine the enthalpy change of the overall equation.
- Two examples are provided to demonstrate calculating the enthalpy change of an overall reaction by combining individual reaction enthalpies.
- In both examples, the individual reactions are rearranged and combined to produce the overall reaction, and the enthalpy terms are summed to find the enthalpy change of the overall reaction.
General Chemistry 2 - Chapter 1: The Kinetic Molecular Model and Intermolecul...marvinnbustamante1
The document discusses the properties of solids, liquids, and gases based on the kinetic molecular theory. It explains that in solids, particles are closely packed together in an ordered structure, while in liquids they are more spaced out but still in contact with each other. Liquids have stronger intermolecular forces than gases but weaker than solids. The document also discusses different types of intermolecular forces such as hydrogen bonding, dipole-dipole forces, and dispersion forces, and how these forces influence properties like boiling point, surface tension, and viscosity.
This document discusses various topics in thermochemistry including:
- Enthalpy changes in chemical reactions and how they are measured using calorimetry. Exothermic and endothermic reactions are explained.
- Hess's law, which states that the enthalpy change of a reaction is independent of the reaction pathway. It can be used to calculate enthalpy changes.
- Standard enthalpies of formation and how they allow calculation of enthalpy changes using Hess's law and bond dissociation enthalpies.
- Measuring enthalpy changes using bomb calorimetry and coffee cup calorimetry. Limitations of each method are discussed.
The document discusses endogenetic forces that cause folding and faulting within the Earth's crust. It describes several types of folds that occur due to compression, such as anticlines where rock layers bend upwards and synclines where they bend downwards. It also details different fault types like normal faults where rocks move apart and reverse faults where they move together. In total, the document outlines seven fold types and five fault types that shape the Earth's surface over millions of years through horizontal and vertical crustal movements.
The document discusses kinetics and reaction rates. It defines kinetics as the branch of chemistry that studies the speed or rate of chemical reactions. It explains that reaction rates can be measured by changes in concentration, temperature, or pressure over time. The rate depends on factors like the nature of reactants, concentration, temperature, catalysts, surface area, and pressure. Reactions may occur in multiple steps through reaction intermediates rather than a single step. The collision theory and concept of activation energy are introduced to explain why certain collisions result in reactions. Reaction coordinate diagrams are used to illustrate the energy changes in reactions.
solutions and their concentrations in Analytical chemistry by Azad AlshatteriAzad Alshatteri
This document discusses different units for expressing the concentration of solutions, including mass per volume, parts per million (ppm), parts per billion (ppb), and percent concentration. It provides examples of how to calculate concentration using these units for various types of solutions, including solid-liquid, liquid-liquid, and solid-solid solutions. Common concentration units covered are grams per liter (g/L), milligrams per milliliter (mg/mL), micrograms per microliter (μg/mL), parts per million (ppm), and percentage concentration (%).
This document discusses aqueous solutions and their properties. It defines key terms including solute, solvent, solution, electrolyte, and nonelectrolyte. It explains that solutions can be solid, liquid, or gas and describes different types of aqueous solutions. Common examples like sea water, vinegar, and sugar water are provided. The document also discusses solubility, dissociation, hydration, and precipitation reactions.
Thermochemistry is the study of heat changes in chemical reactions. There are several types of energy including chemical, thermal, nuclear, and radiant energy. Heat is the transfer of thermal energy between objects at different temperatures. Thermochemistry examines heat absorbed or released by chemical reactions using concepts like exothermic, endothermic, enthalpy, and calorimetry. The first law of thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred between systems and their surroundings.
Lecithin may be produced from egg yolk, but more commonly used in aquafeed are soya and rapeseed lecithin. It is well known that the phospholipids (PL) present in lecithin act as an emulsifier of lipids in the animal stomach and gut, but especially the nutritional benefits of lecithin is why fish nutritionists like to include it in fish and shrimp diets. Lecithin is widely used in feed for larval and juvenile stages of various species of fish and crustaceans, because those developing fish have a limited ability to the novo phospholipid synthesis.
This document describes ingredients and products from VAV Life Sciences Pvt Ltd in Mumbai, India. It outlines their offerings of soy and egg lecithins, phospholipids, and egg yolk oil for use in food, nutrition, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and dermatological applications. VAV has experience in international marketing and a research and development lab for lecithins and phospholipids. They thank the reader and look forward to potential partnerships.
Colligative properties of dilute solution is important topic of physical chemistry. mainly cover types with application of it day to day life... must to watch and share
Chapter 2.2: Solutions and Their Properties (Solution Stoichiometry)marvinnbustamante1
The document outlines topics covered in General Chemistry II for week 4, including:
1) Expressing concentration of solutions using various units
2) Performing stoichiometric calculations for reactions in solution
3) Describing the effect of concentration on colligative properties of solutions
It then provides examples of stoichiometric calculations involving reactions in aqueous solution, determining the amounts of reactants and products based on the amounts given of one substance.
Colligative properties depend only on the number of dissolved particles in solution and not on their identity. The key colligative properties are vapor pressure lowering, boiling point elevation, and freezing point depression. Vapor pressure lowering occurs because solute particles decrease the number of solvent particles that can evaporate from the surface. Boiling point elevation and freezing point depression occur because adding solute particles lowers the vapor pressure of the solvent, requiring more energy for evaporation or freezing. The degree of change in boiling point or freezing point depends on the molality of the solution.
This document provides an overview of intermolecular forces, liquids, solids, and phase changes. It discusses topics such as the kinetic molecular model of liquids and solids, different types of intermolecular forces (dipole-dipole, ion-dipole, hydrogen bonding, dispersion), properties of liquids influenced by intermolecular forces, and phase diagrams. The document also examines the structure and properties of water, types of solids including crystalline and amorphous, and characteristics of molecular, ionic, metallic and network solids.
This document discusses key aspects of what it means to be a human person from a philosophical and theological perspective. It addresses how human persons are:
1) Historical beings who are products of their experiences and continue developing over time through experiences that shape who they become.
2) Embodied spirits who exist in a physical world with both capabilities and limitations. While the body has constraints, human intellect allows people to transcend limitations.
3) Beings with intrinsic worth and dignity who deserve respect, as embodied temples for the Holy Spirit dwelling within each person.
This document provides an overview of key topics in General Chemistry II to be covered in weeks 3-4. These include:
1) Expressing the concentration of solutions using various units like percent by mass, molarity, molality, etc.
2) Performing stoichiometric calculations for reactions in solution.
3) Describing how concentration affects colligative properties of solutions.
4) Differentiating colligative properties of nonelectrolyte and electrolyte solutions.
5) Calculating properties like boiling point elevation and freezing point depression from concentration.
The document discusses intermolecular forces and how they influence the properties of matter. It describes the main types of intermolecular forces - hydrogen bonding, dipole-dipole interactions, and London dispersion forces - and how they affect boiling points, melting points, and phase changes. Stronger intermolecular forces require more energy to overcome during changes of state from solid to liquid to gas.
The document discusses how to calculate the mass of products formed in chemical reactions using stoichiometric calculations and identifying the limiting reactant. Examples are provided of determining the limiting reactant and calculating the mass of products from the masses of reactants given for different chemical
This document discusses the cardinal virtues (prudence, justice, temperance, fortitude) and theological virtues (faith, hope, charity) of Catholicism. It provides definitions and meanings for each of the seven capital virtues: chastity, temperance, charity, diligence, patience, kindness, and humility. It explains that the cardinal virtues are natural and help govern our actions through reason, while the theological virtues are supernatural and infused by God and have God as their object. Overall, the document serves to outline and explain the key virtues of Catholic theology.
Quantitative Determination of Total Hardness in Drinking Water by Complexomet...Nathan Nogales
This experiment aims to determine the total hardness of drinking water using a complexometric titration with EDTA. The standardization of EDTA is performed using a calcium carbonate standard. Reactions involving the calcium-EDTA and magnesium-EDTA complexes are discussed. The addition of magnesium chloride is meant to create a sharper titration endpoint but the amount added was insignificant compared to the EDTA. Analysis of a water sample from Viva found it to have a total hardness of 192.49 ppm CaCO3, which is 25.8% lower than the value claimed.
The document discusses Hess's law, which states that the heat of reaction is the same whether a chemical process occurs in one or multiple steps. Specifically:
- Hess's law allows adding together multiple chemical equations to determine the enthalpy change of the overall equation.
- Two examples are provided to demonstrate calculating the enthalpy change of an overall reaction by combining individual reaction enthalpies.
- In both examples, the individual reactions are rearranged and combined to produce the overall reaction, and the enthalpy terms are summed to find the enthalpy change of the overall reaction.
General Chemistry 2 - Chapter 1: The Kinetic Molecular Model and Intermolecul...marvinnbustamante1
The document discusses the properties of solids, liquids, and gases based on the kinetic molecular theory. It explains that in solids, particles are closely packed together in an ordered structure, while in liquids they are more spaced out but still in contact with each other. Liquids have stronger intermolecular forces than gases but weaker than solids. The document also discusses different types of intermolecular forces such as hydrogen bonding, dipole-dipole forces, and dispersion forces, and how these forces influence properties like boiling point, surface tension, and viscosity.
This document discusses various topics in thermochemistry including:
- Enthalpy changes in chemical reactions and how they are measured using calorimetry. Exothermic and endothermic reactions are explained.
- Hess's law, which states that the enthalpy change of a reaction is independent of the reaction pathway. It can be used to calculate enthalpy changes.
- Standard enthalpies of formation and how they allow calculation of enthalpy changes using Hess's law and bond dissociation enthalpies.
- Measuring enthalpy changes using bomb calorimetry and coffee cup calorimetry. Limitations of each method are discussed.
The document discusses endogenetic forces that cause folding and faulting within the Earth's crust. It describes several types of folds that occur due to compression, such as anticlines where rock layers bend upwards and synclines where they bend downwards. It also details different fault types like normal faults where rocks move apart and reverse faults where they move together. In total, the document outlines seven fold types and five fault types that shape the Earth's surface over millions of years through horizontal and vertical crustal movements.
The document discusses kinetics and reaction rates. It defines kinetics as the branch of chemistry that studies the speed or rate of chemical reactions. It explains that reaction rates can be measured by changes in concentration, temperature, or pressure over time. The rate depends on factors like the nature of reactants, concentration, temperature, catalysts, surface area, and pressure. Reactions may occur in multiple steps through reaction intermediates rather than a single step. The collision theory and concept of activation energy are introduced to explain why certain collisions result in reactions. Reaction coordinate diagrams are used to illustrate the energy changes in reactions.
solutions and their concentrations in Analytical chemistry by Azad AlshatteriAzad Alshatteri
This document discusses different units for expressing the concentration of solutions, including mass per volume, parts per million (ppm), parts per billion (ppb), and percent concentration. It provides examples of how to calculate concentration using these units for various types of solutions, including solid-liquid, liquid-liquid, and solid-solid solutions. Common concentration units covered are grams per liter (g/L), milligrams per milliliter (mg/mL), micrograms per microliter (μg/mL), parts per million (ppm), and percentage concentration (%).
This document discusses aqueous solutions and their properties. It defines key terms including solute, solvent, solution, electrolyte, and nonelectrolyte. It explains that solutions can be solid, liquid, or gas and describes different types of aqueous solutions. Common examples like sea water, vinegar, and sugar water are provided. The document also discusses solubility, dissociation, hydration, and precipitation reactions.
Thermochemistry is the study of heat changes in chemical reactions. There are several types of energy including chemical, thermal, nuclear, and radiant energy. Heat is the transfer of thermal energy between objects at different temperatures. Thermochemistry examines heat absorbed or released by chemical reactions using concepts like exothermic, endothermic, enthalpy, and calorimetry. The first law of thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred between systems and their surroundings.
Lecithin may be produced from egg yolk, but more commonly used in aquafeed are soya and rapeseed lecithin. It is well known that the phospholipids (PL) present in lecithin act as an emulsifier of lipids in the animal stomach and gut, but especially the nutritional benefits of lecithin is why fish nutritionists like to include it in fish and shrimp diets. Lecithin is widely used in feed for larval and juvenile stages of various species of fish and crustaceans, because those developing fish have a limited ability to the novo phospholipid synthesis.
This document describes ingredients and products from VAV Life Sciences Pvt Ltd in Mumbai, India. It outlines their offerings of soy and egg lecithins, phospholipids, and egg yolk oil for use in food, nutrition, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and dermatological applications. VAV has experience in international marketing and a research and development lab for lecithins and phospholipids. They thank the reader and look forward to potential partnerships.
* Ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) molar mass = 62.07 g/mol
* Solution contains 478 g ethylene glycol
* Moles of ethylene glycol = 478 g / 62.07 g/mol = 7.69 mol
* Solution contains 3202 g water
* Mass of water = 3202 g
* Molality = moles of solute / kg of solvent
= 7.69 mol / 3.202 kg
= 2.40 m
* Freezing point depression constant (Kf) for water is 1.86 °C/m
* Freezing point depression = ΔTf = Kf × m
= 1.86 °C
Promueve energía.
Previene la formación de cálculos biliares.
Protector Hepático.
Moviliza los depósitos de Grasa en el organismo.
Pudiendo prevenir la Aterosclerosis y ciertos desórdenes Cardiacos.
Promueve la reducción del Colesterol y Triglicéridos.
Mejora el funcionamiento cerebral.
Estimula el aprendizaje y la memoria.
Facilita la absorción de vitamina A y las del Complejo B.
This patient appears to be in hemorrhagic shock from his injuries sustained in the motor vehicle crash. His thready pulse and low blood pressure indicate he has lost a significant amount of blood and is hypovolemic. Immediate treatment should focus on resuscitation with intravenous fluids and blood products to restore circulating volume and improve end organ perfusion. His condition requires prompt intervention to prevent further hemodynamic instability and potential organ dysfunction or failure.
El documento trata sobre el pH y la acidez y basicidad. Explica que el agua puede comportarse como ácido o base dependiendo del medio, liberando o captando protones. Define ácidos y bases según la teoría de Bronsted-Lowry. También describe los conceptos de producto iónico del agua, pH, pOH, y valores típicos de pH. Por último, explica los mecanismos de regulación del pH a través de soluciones amortiguadoras como el bicarbonato y el fosfato, y los sistemas respiratorio y renal
This document discusses lecithin, including its chemical structure, sources, uses in food and other industries, and status regarding halal certification. Lecithin is an emulsifying substance found in cells and extracted commercially from egg yolks and soybeans. It has a polar and nonpolar portion that allows it to act as an emulsifying agent. Lecithin is widely used in the food industry in small amounts and classified as GRAS. However, its halal status is uncertain depending on sourcing and processing methods.
This document discusses various biophysical principles including diffusion, osmosis, and dialysis. It explains that diffusion is the movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to lower concentration down a concentration gradient. Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a semipermeable membrane from a region of lower solute concentration to higher solute concentration. Osmotic pressure is the hydrostatic pressure required to prevent osmosis. These principles are important for biological processes like gas exchange and kidney function, and conditions like edema can be caused by imbalances in osmotic pressure. Dialysis techniques like hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis are used to filter waste from blood in kidney failure patients.
The document discusses several key factors that affect solubility:
1) The nature of the solute and solvent - whether they are polar or non-polar determines if they will dissolve in each other, with "like dissolving like".
2) Temperature - for gases, solubility decreases as temperature increases but for solids it generally increases as temperature increases.
3) Pressure - for gases, solubility increases as pressure over the solvent increases based on Henry's Law.
This document discusses solubility and distribution phenomena. It defines key terms like solution, solute, solvent, saturated solution, and solubility. It explains that a drug's solubility is important for formulation and bioavailability. The solubility of a substance is influenced by factors like particle size, molecular size, boiling/melting points, and the presence of polar/nonpolar substituents. Solvents are also classified as polar, nonpolar, or semipolar depending on their ability to dissolve different types of solutes through intermolecular interactions like hydrogen bonding.
This document provides an overview of stoichiometry in solutions. It outlines the key steps to solving stoichiometry problems which include identifying compounds/elements, writing balanced equations, calculating moles of reactants and products, and converting units. It then works through an example problem calculating the grams of aluminum chloride produced from a reaction between aluminum and hydrochloric acid.
This solution exhibits nonideal behavior. Acetone and chloroform are both volatile liquids that contribute to the total vapor pressure. To determine if it is ideal or nonideal, we would need the individual vapor pressures of acetone and chloroform at 35°C and their mole fractions in order to use the modified Raoult's law equation and compare the calculated total pressure to the measured 260 torr.
This document discusses solutions and their properties. It begins by listing learning objectives related to describing different types of solutions, expressing concentration using various units, and explaining properties like vapor pressure and colligative properties. It then defines solutions as homogeneous mixtures and describes various types of solutions depending on the state of the solute and solvent. The document goes on to discuss different ways of expressing the concentration of a solution, including mass and volume percentages, parts per million, mole fraction, molarity, and molality. It provides examples of calculating concentration using these various units. Finally, it discusses solubility and how temperature, pressure, and the nature of the solute and solvent affect solubility.
This document provides information about solutions and colloids. It begins with an overview of solutions as homogeneous mixtures that exist as a single phase, while colloids are heterogeneous mixtures that exist in two or more phases. Subsequent sections discuss solubility and how intermolecular forces affect it, concentration terms including molarity, molality and mole fraction, and factors that influence solubility such as temperature and pressure. Examples are provided for calculating concentration in various units and converting between concentration terms. The document concludes with a discussion of using solutions in chemical reactions including titration and diluting solutions.
New chm-151-unit-13-power-points-su13s-140227172226-phpapp02Cleophas Rwemera
This document provides an overview of solutions and colloids. It begins by defining solutions and colloids, noting that solutions are homogeneous mixtures that exist in a single phase, while colloids are heterogeneous mixtures that exist in two or more phases. The document then discusses concentration terms such as molarity, molality, and mole fraction. It provides examples of calculating concentrations using these different terms. Finally, the document covers additional topics related to solutions, including factors that affect solubility, dilutions, and interconverting between concentration terms.
This document discusses properties of solutions including:
- Types of solutions defined by the states of the solute and solvent.
- Terms used to describe solution composition such as dilute, concentrated, molarity, mass percent, mole fraction, and molality.
- Calculations showing how to determine the molarity, mass percent, mole fraction, and molality of a solution.
- The relationship between molarity and normality for acids and bases.
- Factors that influence solubility including entropy and the heat of solution formation.
This document discusses properties of solutions including:
- Types of solutions defined by the states of the solute and solvent.
- Terms used to describe solution composition such as dilute, concentrated, molarity, mass percent, mole fraction, and molality.
- Molarity is expressed as moles of solute per liter of solution and is dependent on temperature while molality is independent of temperature.
- Heat of solution is the enthalpy change of dissolving a solute and is the sum of enthalpy changes from solute particles separating and solvent particles making space.
- Solubility is influenced by entropy; the mixed state has many more configurations than the unmixed state.
AP Chemistry Chapter 13 Sample ExercisesJane Hamze
The document describes calculating the entropy change and disorder/order of a system when water vapor reacts with solid sodium sulfate to form a hydrated salt. It first examines the initial and final states to determine if the system becomes more or less dispersed. Since the water vapor becomes confined in the solid hydrate lattice, the system becomes more ordered and the entropy decreases.
Chapter 13 Lecture on Solutions & Colligative PropertiesMary Beth Smith
The document summarizes key concepts about solutions from chapters 11-13, including:
- Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two or more substances where the solute is uniformly dispersed in the solvent.
- Solubility is affected by intermolecular forces - "like dissolves like" with polar substances dissolving in polar solvents.
- Temperature and pressure can impact solubility, with solubility generally increasing with temperature and gas solubility directly proportional to pressure.
- There are various ways to express concentration, including molarity, molality, mole fraction, ppm, and mass percentage.
This document provides definitions and examples of key concepts in general chemistry including:
1. Solvation refers to the attractive interaction between solvent molecules and a solute. Hydration describes the interaction when water is the solvent.
2. The overall enthalpy change of a solution can be either positive (endothermic) or negative (exothermic).
3. A saturated solution is one in equilibrium with undissolved solute where dissolution and crystallization occur at equal rates. Unsaturated and supersaturated solutions contain less or more solute respectively.
4. Colligative properties include vapor pressure depression, freezing point depression, boiling point elevation, and osmotic pressure.
This document discusses solutions and various concepts related to solutions, including:
- Solutions occur when a solute dissolves in a solvent, with examples of different solvents and solutes.
- Common ways to measure concentration include molarity, mass percent, mole fraction, and molality.
- The heat of solution is determined by the energies of breaking apart the solvent and solute and mixing them.
- Factors like structure, pressure, temperature, and non-volatility of the solute affect solubility.
This document discusses properties of solutions, including:
- Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two or more substances, with the solute dispersed uniformly throughout the solvent.
- A solute dissolves as the solvent molecules interact with and surround the solute particles or ions, changing the enthalpy of the system.
- The entropy of the system typically increases during dissolution, making dissolution spontaneous even for endothermic processes.
- Concentrations of solutions can be expressed using various units including molarity, molality, mass percent, and parts per million or billion.
Many chemical reactions occur in water. Water is a polar solvent that can dissolve ionic compounds via hydration. When an ionic compound dissolves in water, it separates into its constituent ions which are surrounded by water molecules. The concentration of a solution is expressed as molarity, which is the number of moles of solute per liter of solution. Solutions can be prepared by accurately weighing out and dissolving the solute in a volumetric flask and diluting the solution as needed.
A document discusses various types of mixtures and solutions. It defines heterogeneous and homogeneous mixtures, and describes solutions as homogeneous mixtures composed of solutes and solvents. The document discusses different types of solutions including gaseous, liquid, and solid solutions. It also covers topics like concentration, molarity, molality, mole fraction, saturation, solubility, and colligative properties. Colligative properties discussed include vapor pressure reduction, boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, and osmotic pressure. Factors affecting solubility and the rate of dissolution are also summarized.
This document discusses several topics related to solutions, including:
1. It defines solutions and describes ways to express concentration such as molarity, mass percent, and mole fraction.
2. It explains that the enthalpy of solution depends on the energies required to separate the solute, expand the solvent, and allow interactions between solute and solvent particles. The overall enthalpy can be endothermic or exothermic.
3. Factors that affect solubility include like dissolving like, pressure, temperature, and molecular structure. Henry's law relates the solubility of gases to pressure. Temperature can either increase or decrease solubility depending on the substances involved.
This document provides an overview of key concepts related to solutions. It defines solutions as homogeneous mixtures of two or more pure substances, with the solute dispersed uniformly throughout the solvent. For a solution to form, the intermolecular forces between solute and solvent particles must be strong enough. The document discusses how solutions form and the associated energy changes. It also covers different types of solutions, factors that affect solubility, and various ways of expressing the concentration of solutions, including mass percentage, parts per million/billion, mole fraction, molarity, and molality. Finally, it introduces colligative properties such as vapor pressure lowering that depend only on the number of solute particles.
This document defines key terms related to solutions and summarizes factors that affect solubility. It defines a solution as a homogeneous mixture where a solute is dissolved in a solvent. Temperature, pressure, and the nature of the solute and solvent affect solubility. There are various units to express concentration, including molarity, molality, and percent composition. Colligative properties like boiling point elevation and freezing point depression depend on the number of solute particles rather than their identity.
This document contains chemistry questions related to solutions. It includes questions about types of solutions, properties of solutions like boiling point elevation and freezing point depression, and calculations involving molarity, molality, and vapor pressure. The questions cover topics like ideal and non-ideal solutions, Raoult's law, colligative properties, and van't Hoff factor.
1. The document discusses various terms used to express the concentration of solutions such as percentage, molarity, molality, normality, and mole fraction. It provides examples and formulas to calculate these quantities.
2. Several numerical problems are given related to calculating concentration based on the mass or volume of components in a solution. This includes problems determining the percentage or mole fraction composition of mixed solutions.
3. Additional "HOTS" or higher-order thinking skills problems are presented involving multiple steps to determine volumes, densities, or concentrations required to achieve a desired solution composition.
This document discusses attribution theory and the causes of behavior. There are two main categories of causes - situational causes which are external factors, and dispositional causes which are internal traits. Research has found that how people attribute causes correlates with relationship satisfaction. People tend to attribute others' behaviors more to internal traits rather than external situations, known as the fundamental attribution error. Major theories discussed include Kelly's model of causal attribution and the correspondent inference theory.
This document summarizes Erikson's theory of ego integrity versus despair as the psychosocial conflict faced in late adulthood. It also discusses several theories related to personality, coping with stress, social interaction, relationships, and retirement in late adulthood. Key theories mentioned include continuity theory, socioemotional selectivity theory, and Lazarus and Folkman's cognitive-appraisal coping model.
This document summarizes key concepts about chemical equilibrium:
1) Chemical equilibrium occurs when the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal and the concentrations of reactants and products stop changing. The system appears static but reactions are still occurring in both directions.
2) The equilibrium constant, K, is defined based on the balanced chemical equation and describes the position of equilibrium. It depends only on temperature.
3) The reaction quotient, Q, is similar to K but uses the actual concentrations rather than equilibrium concentrations. Comparing Q to K indicates whether a reaction will proceed in the forward or reverse direction to reach equilibrium.
This document discusses acids and bases, including:
- The Arrhenius definition of acids and bases as substances that increase H+ or OH- ions in water.
- The Brønsted-Lowry definition of acids as proton donors and bases as proton acceptors.
- Conjugate acid-base pairs that differ by the presence or absence of a proton.
- Amphoteric substances that can act as both acids and bases, such as water.
- The pH scale for measuring the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution.
- Strong acids and bases that fully dissociate in water versus weak acids and bases that only partially dissociate.
1. The document discusses the different states of matter and summarizes the key differences between gases, liquids, and solids.
2. It then covers various gas laws including Boyle's law, Charles' law, Avogadro's law, and the ideal gas equation.
3. The kinetic molecular theory is introduced to explain gas behavior at the molecular level in terms of molecule motion and interactions.
VSEPR theory describes the electron-group arrangements and molecular shapes that result from electron-pair repulsions around a central atom. The theory states that valence electron groups will adopt an arrangement that minimizes repulsions between these groups. This results in five basic molecular geometries - linear, trigonal planar, tetrahedral, trigonal bipyramidal, and octahedral. Factors such as double bonds, lone pairs, and differing atomic sizes can cause deviations from ideal bond angles predicted by VSEPR theory.
The document discusses chemical bonding and Lewis structures. It begins by defining a chemical bond as the force that holds atoms together, and discusses how atoms combine or share electrons to form ionic or covalent bonds. It then explains Lewis structures, showing how to draw the Lewis dot symbols and structures for various molecules by placing the atoms and distributing electrons to achieve full octets. Exceptions to the octet rule are also noted. Hybridization and theories of covalent bonding such as valence bond theory are introduced.
The document discusses chemical bonding and Lewis structures. It begins by defining a chemical bond as the force that holds atoms together, and discusses how atoms combine or share electrons to form ionic or covalent bonds. It then explains Lewis structures, showing how to draw the Lewis dot symbols and determine the hybridization of atoms. Examples are provided of writing Lewis structures for different molecules like CCl4 and NH4+. The document also discusses exceptions to the octet rule and theories of covalent bonding like valence bond theory and hybridization theory.
1. The document discusses periodicity and trends in the properties of elements as they relate to their position in the periodic table.
2. Key periodic trends include decreases in atomic radius and increases in ionization energy and electronegativity from left to right across a period, and the opposite trends down a group.
3. The placement of elements in the periodic table allows for predictions of element properties and reactivity based on electronic structure.
This document provides an overview of quantum theory and atomic structure. It discusses key topics such as the wave-particle duality of light and matter, Planck's quantization of energy, atomic spectra, Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom, quantum numbers, atomic orbitals, and the Schrödinger equation. Figures and sample problems illustrate these concepts and how to determine quantum numbers and name atomic sublevels.
The document discusses electronic configuration, which is the arrangement of electrons in an atom's orbitals. It is described using symbols that indicate the principal shell, subshell, and number of electrons. The Aufbau principle states that electrons fill the lowest available energy levels. Pauli's exclusion principle limits each orbital to two electrons with different quantum numbers. Hund's rule states that orbitals in a subshell will each have one electron before any are doubly filled, with parallel electron spins. Partial configurations, orbital diagrams, and number of inner electrons are provided for potassium, molybdenum, and lead as examples. Key terms like isoelectronic, valence electrons, and magnetic properties are also defined.
2. The Properties of Mixtures: Solutions and Colloids 13.1 Types of Solutions: Intermolecular Forces and Predicting Solubility 13.2 Intermolecular Forces and Biological Macromolecules 13.3 Why Substances Dissolve: Understanding the Solution Process 13.5 Quantitative Ways of Expressing Concentration 13.6 Colligative Properties of Solutions 13.7 The Structure and Properties of Colloids 13.4 Solubility as an Equilibrium Process
3. Solution : homogenous mixtures of two or more components that can be varied in composition Solvent : component present in greatest amount; substance in which a solute dissolves Solute : other components; substance that is dissolved Aqueous solutions : solution in which water is the solvent Solvation : interaction between solute and solvent molecules; due to IMF; e.g. Na+ and Cl- ion surrounded byH2O molecules Hydration : solvation when solvent is water
4. Types of Solution dilute – solution with low solute concentration concentrated – one with high solute concentration solubility : maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in a given amount of solvent saturated solution – a solution that contains the maximum amount of solute the solvent can dissolves; no more solute can dissolve in it unsaturated solution – solution containing amount of solute less than its solubility; more solute can dissolve in it supersaturated solution – solution containing an amount of solute greater than the solubility; unstable solution
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6. Correlation Between Boiling Point and Solubility in Water Table 13.3 Gas Solubility (M)* bp (K) He Ne N 2 CO O 2 NO 4.2 x 10 -4 4.2 6.6 x 10 -4 27.1 10.4 x 10 -4 77.4 15.6 x 10 -4 81.6 21.8 x 10 -4 90.2 32.7 x 10 -4 121.4 * At 273K and 1 atm
7. Henry’s Law S gas = k H X P gas The solubility of a gas ( S gas ) is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas ( P gas ) above the solution.
8. LIKE DISSOLVES LIKE Substances with similar types of intermolecular forces dissolve in each other. When a solute dissolves in a solvent, solute-solute interactions and solvent-solvent interactions are being replaced with solute-solvent interactions. The forces must be comparable in strength in order to have a solution occur.
9. Figure 13.3 Like dissolves like: solubility of methanol in water. water methanol A solution of methanol in water
11. Figure 13.9 The structure of lecithin. lecithin phospholipid found in all cell membranes
12. SAMPLE PROBLEM 13.1 Predicting Relative Solubilities of Substances SOLUTION: (a) Sodium chloride in methanol (CH 3 OH) or in propanol (CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 OH) (b) Ethylene glycol (HOCH 2 CH 2 OH) in hexane (CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 3 ) or in water. (c) Diethyl ether (CH 3 CH 2 OCH 2 CH 3 ) in water or in ethanol (CH 3 CH 2 OH) (c) Ethanol - Diethyl ether can interact through a dipole and dispersion forces. Ethanol can provide both while water would like to H bond. (b) Water - Hexane has no dipoles to interact with the -OH groups in ethylene glycol. Water can H bond to the ethylene glycol. PROBLEM: Predict which solvent will dissolve more of the given solute: PLAN: Consider the intermolecular forces which can exist between solute molecules and consider whether the solvent can provide such interactions and thereby substitute. (a) Methanol - NaCl is ionic and will form ion-dipoles with the -OH groups of both methanol and propanol. However, propanol is subject to the dispersion forces to a greater extent.
13. Classification of Solutions A. Based on elemental composition Organic – compounds containing carbon (except CO2, CO, carbonates and cyanides) Inorganic – compounds of the other elements including acids, bases, and salts B. Based on Ionization/Electrolytic Property of Solute Electrolytic property – the ability of the solution to conduct electricity Electrolytes – substances whose aqueous solutions contain ions and thus conduct electricity strong electrolytes – substances which completely dissociates into ions e.g. salts, strong acids, strong bases NaCl -> Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
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15. Figure 13.25 The three types of electrolytes. STRONG weak nonelectrolyte
16. Table 13.5 Concentration Definitions Concentration Term Ratio Molarity (M) amount (mol) of solute volume (L) of solution Molality ( m ) amount (mol) of solute mass (kg) of solvent percent by mass mass of solute mass of solution Percent by volume volume of solute volume of solution Mole fraction amount (mol) of solute amount (mol) of solute + amount (mol) of solvent
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19. SAMPLE PROBLEM 13.3 Calculating Molality PLAN: SOLUTION: We have to convert the grams of CaCl 2 to moles and the grams of water to kg. Then substitute into the equation for molality. molality = = 0.288 mole CaCl 2 = 1.06 m CaCl 2 PROBLEM: What is the molality of a solution prepared by dissolving 32.0 g of CaCl 2 in 271 g of water? 271 g H 2 O 0.288 mole CaCl 2 kg 10 3 g x 32.0 g CaCl 2 mole CaCl 2 110.98 g CaCl 2 x
20. SAMPLE PROBLEM 13.4 Expressing Concentration in Parts by Mass, Parts by Volume, and Mole Fraction PLAN: PROBLEM: (a) Find the concentration of calcium (in ppm) in a 3.50-g pill that contains 40.5 mg of Ca. (b) The label on a 0.750-L bottle of Italian chianti indicates “11.5% alcohol by volume”. How many liters of alcohol does the wine contain? (c) A sample of rubbing alcohol contains 142 g of isopropyl alcohol (C 3 H 7 OH) and 58.0 g of water. What are the mole fractions of alcohol and water? (a) Convert mg to g of Ca, find the ratio of g Ca to g pill and multiply by 10 6 . (b) Knowing the % alcohol and total volume, we can find volume of alcohol. (c) Convert g of solute and solvent to moles; find the ratios of parts to the total.
21. SAMPLE PROBLEM 13.4 Expressing Concentrations in Parts by Mass, Parts by Volume, and Mole Fraction SOLUTION: continued (a) 3.5 g = 1.16x10 4 ppm Ca (b) = 0.0862 L alcohol (c) moles ethylene glycol = 142 g = 2.36 mol C 3 H 8 O moles water = 38.0g = 3.22 mol H 2 O 2.39 mol C 3 H 8 O 2.39 mol C 3 H 8 O 2 + 3.22 mol H 2 O 3.22 mol H 2 O 2.39 mol C 3 H 8 O 2 + 3.22 mol H 2 O 10 3 mg g 40.5 mg Ca x 10 6 x 11.5 L alcohol 100 L chianti 0.750 L chianti x mole 60.09 g mole 18.02 g = 0.423 C 2 H 6 O 2 = 0.577 H 2 O
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23. SAMPLE PROBLEM 13.5 Converting Concentration Units PLAN: SOLUTION: (a) Molality (b) Mole fraction of H 2 O 2 (c) Molarity (a) To find the mass of solvent we assume the % is per 100 g of solution. Take the difference in the mass of the solute and solution for the mass of peroxide. (b) Convert g of solute and solvent to moles before finding . (c) Use the density to find the volume of the solution. (a) g of H 2 O = 100. g solution - 30.0 g H 2 O 2 = 70.0 g H 2 O molality = 30.0 g H 2 O 2 34.02 g H 2 O 2 mol H 2 O 2 70.0 g H 2 O kg H 2 O 10 3 g = 12.6 m H 2 O 2 PROBLEM: Hydrogen peroxide is a powerful oxidizing agent used in concentrated solution in rocket fuels and in dilute solution a a hair bleach. An aqueous solution H 2 O 2 is 30.0% by mass and has a density of 1.11 g/mL. Calculate its 0.882 mol H 2 O 2
24. SAMPLE PROBLEM 13.5 Converting Concentration Units continued (b) 0.882 mol H 2 O 2 70.0 g H 2 O = 3.88 mol H 2 O 0.882 mol H 2 O 2 + 3.88 mol H 2 O = 0.185 of H 2 O 2 (c) 100.0 g solution = 90.1 mL solution 0.882 mol H 2 O 2 90.1 mL solution = 9.79 M H 2 O 2 mol H 2 O 18.02 g H 2 O mL 1.11 g L 10 3 mL
25. Dilution of Solution When a solution is diluted: the volume is increased by adding more solvent the concentration is decreased, and the total amount of solute remains constant Dilution Formula: M1V1 = M2V2 where M1 ≡ initial concentration M2 ≡ final concentration V1 ≡ initial volume V2 ≡ final volume
26. Polyprotic Acids – conatins more than one 2 replaceable H+ i. H3PO4 + 3 NaOH -> Na3PO4 + 3 H2O a = 3 eq/mol ii. H3PO4 + 2 NaOH -> Na2HPO4 + 2 H2O a = 2 eq/mol iii. H3PO4 + NaOH -> NaH2PO4 + H2O a = 1 eq/mol
27. COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES properties that are dependent only on the concentrations of solute, not on the nature applicable only to non-volatile, non-electrolytic solutions Vapor Pressure Lowering/Depression Boiling Point Elevation Freezing Point Depression Osmotic Pressure, π
28. Colligative Properties Raoult’s Law (vapor pressure of a solvent above a solution, P solvent ) P solution = solvent X P 0 solvent where P 0 solvent is the vapor pressure of the pure solvent P 0 solvent - P solution = P = solute x P 0 solvent Boiling Point Elevation and Freezing Point Depression T b = K b m T f = K f m Osmotic Pressure M R T where M is the molarity, R is the ideal gas law constant and T is the Kelvin temperature
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30. Figure 13.23 The effect of pressure on gas solubility. Pure solvent Solution
31. Ideal Solution – a solution that obeys Raoult’s Law; ideal behavior can at low solute concentration, solute and solvent Idea Solutions with two or more volatile components (A and B) -> partial pressures of A and B P A = χ A P A o P B = χ B P B o P TOTAL = P A + P B P TOTAL = χ A P A o + χ B P B o
32. SAMPLE PROBLEM 13.6 Using Raoult’s Law to Find the Vapor Pressure Lowering SOLUTION: 10.0 mL C 3 H 8 O 3 = 0.137 mol C 3 H 8 O 3 500.0 mL H 2 O = 27.4 mol H 2 O P = 27.4 mol H2O 0.137 mol C 3 H 8 O 3 + 27.4 mol H 2 O 92.5 torr x x x = 92.0 torr PROBLEM: Calculate the vapor pressure of the solution when 10.0 mL of glycerol (C 3 H 8 O 3 ) is added to 500. mL of water at 50. 0 C. At this temperature, the vapor pressure of pure water is 92.5 torr and its density is 0.988 g/mL. The density of glycerol is 1.26 g/mL. PLAN: Find the mol fraction, , of glycerol in solution and multiply by the vapor pressure of water. 1.26 g C 3 H 8 O 3 mL C 3 H 8 O 3 mol C 3 H 8 O 3 92.09 g C 3 H 8 O 3 0.988 g H 2 O mL H 2 O mol H 2 O 18.02 g H 2 O = 0.00498
35. SAMPLE PROBLEM 13.7 Determining the Boiling Point Elevation and Freezing Point Depression of a Solution SOLUTION: 1.00x10 3 g C 2 H 6 O 2 = 16.1 mol C 2 H 6 O 2 T bp = 0.512 0 C/m 16.1 mol C 2 H 6 O 2 4.450 kg H 2 O = 3.62 m C 2 H 6 O 2 3.62 m x = 1.85 0 C BP = 101.85 0 C T fp = 1.86 0 C/m 3.62 m x FP = -6.73 0 C PROBLEM: You add 1.00 kg of ethylene glycol (C 2 H 6 O 2 ) antifreeze to your car radiator, which contains 4450 g of water. What are the boiling and freezing points of the solution? PLAN: Find the # mols of ethylene glycol; m of the solution; multiply by the boiling or freezing point constant; add or subtract, respectively, the changes from the boiling point and freezing point of water. mol C 2 H 6 O 2 62.07 g C 2 H 6 O 2
36. Freezing Point, o C K f , o C/m Boiling Point, o C K b , o C/m Acetic Acid 16.6 3.90 118.1 3.07 Benzene 5.51 4.90 80.1 2.53 Water 0.00 1.86 100.0 0.512 CCl 4 -22.8 31.8 76.8 5.03 Ethanol -117.3 1.99 78.5 1.22
37. Table 13.6 Molal Boiling Point Elevation and Freezing Point Depresssion Constants of Several Solvents Solvent Boiling Point ( 0 C)* K b ( 0 C/ m ) K b ( 0 C/ m ) Melting Point ( 0 C) Acetic acid Benzene Carbon disulfide Carbon tetrachloride Chloroform Diethyl ether Ethanol Water 117.9 80.1 46.2 76.5 61.7 34.5 78.5 100.0 3.07 16.6 3.90 2.53 5.5 4.90 2.34 -111.5 3.83 5.03 -23 30. 3.63 -63.5 4.70 2.02 -116.2 1.79 1.22 -117.3 1.99 0.512 0.0 1.86 *at 1 atm.
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39. 4 . Osmotic Pressure, π - pressure required to prevent osmosis from occurring Osmosis – net movement of solvent molecules from a region of low solute concentration to a region of high solute concentration through a semi-permeable membrane (allows selective passage of water molecules) π = MRT = Where M = molarity R = gas constant = 0.0821 L·atm/K·mol T = absolute temperature
40. When Papplied < π : osmosis takes place in the normal way and water moves through the membrane in the solution When Papplied > π : reverse osmosis occurs wherein water molecules move through the membrane from the solution to pure water. *Note: Reverse osmosis is employed in making freshwater from seawater, where the applied pressure is large enough to reverse the normal precess.
41. Figure 13.28 The development of osmotic pressure. pure solvent solution net movement of solvent solvent molecules solute molecules osmotic pressure Applied pressure needed to prevent volume increase semipermeable membrane
43. SAMPLE PROBLEM 13.8 Determining Molar Mass from Osmotic Pressure SOLUTION: M = = 3.61 torr (0.0821 L*atm/mol*K)(278.1 K) = 2.08 x10 -4 M (1.50 mL) = 3.12x10 -8 mol 21.5 mg = 6.89 x10 4 g/mol PROBLEM: Biochemists have discovered more than 400 mutant varieties of hemoglobin, the blood protein that carries oxygen throughout the body. A physician studing a variety associated with a fatal disease first finds its molar mass ( M ). She dissolves 21.5 mg of the protein in water at 5.0 0 C to make 1.50 mL of solution and measures an osmotic pressure of 3.61 torr. What is the molar mass of this variety of hemoglobin? PLAN: We know as well as R and T. Convert to atm and T to degrees K. Use the equation to find M and then the amount and volume of the sample to get to M . RT atm 760 torr 2.08 x10 -4 mol L 10 3 mL L g 10 3 mg 1 3.12 x10 -8 mol
44. DEFINITIONS: Isotonic Solutions – two solutions having the same osmotic pressure; equal concentrations Hypotonic Solutions – less concentrated solutions Hypertonic Solutions – more concentrated solutions Crenation – caused by movement of water from a (hypotonic) cell Hemolysis – caused by movement of water into a (hypertonic) cell Active transport – opposite of osmosis; movement of substances from a region of low concentration to a region of high concentration
45. Colligative Properties of Electrolyte Solutions For electrolyte solutions, the compound formula tells us how many particles are in the solution. For vapor pressure lowering: P = i ( solute x P 0 solvent ) For boiling point elevation: T b = i ( b m ) For freezing point depression: T f = i ( f m ) For osmotic pressure : = i (MRT) The van’t Hoft factor, i , tells us what the “effective” number of ions are in the solution. The more ions, the larger the value of vant hoff facor. van’t Hoff factor ( i ) i = measured value for electrolyte solution expected value for nonelectrolyte solution
46. Colligative Properties of Electrolytic Solutions different from nonelectrolytes since ions (of opposing charges) have the tendency to stick together and from ION PAIRS formation of ion pairs causes slight changes in π, ΔTf, ΔTb, and VP van’t Hoff factor, i – measure of the extent of dissociation of electrolytes
47. Types of Homogeneous Mixture Kind of Mixture Particle Size, nm Examples Characteristics Solution 0.2 – 2.0 Air, seawater, gasoline, wine Transparent to light; does not separate on standing; nonfilterable Colloid 2.0 – 1000 Butter, milk, fog, pearl Often murky or opaque to light (Tyndall Effect); does not separate on standing; nonfilterable Suspension > 1000 Blood, paint Murky or opaque to light; separate on standing; filterable
48. Colloid – a dispersion of particles of one substance (the dispersed phase) throughout another substance (the continuous phase) Tyndal Effect – the scattering of light of by colloidal-sized particles Coagulation – process by which the dispersed phase of a colloid is made to aggregate and thereby separate from the continuous phase, e.g. curdling of milk when in sours (lactose, milk sugar, ferments to lactic acid)
49. Figure 13.32 Light scattering and the Tyndall effect. Photo by C.A.Bailey, CalPoly SLO (Inlay Lake, Myanmar)
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51. SAMPLE PROBLEM 13.9 Depicting a Solution to Find Its Colligative Properties (b) What is the amount (mol) represented by each green sphere? (c) Assuming the solution is ideal, what is its freezing point (at 1 atm)? PROBLEM: A 0.952-g sample of magnesium chloride is dissolved in 100. g of water in a flask. (a) Which scene depicts the solution best? PLAN: (a) Consider the formula for magnesium chloride, an ionic compound. (b) Use the answer to part (a), the mass given, and the mol mass. (c) The total number of mols of cations and anions, mass of solvent, and equation for freezing point depression can be used to find the new freezing point of the solution.
52. SAMPLE PROBLEM 13.9 Depicting a Solution to Find Its Colligative Properties continued (a) The formula for magnesium chloride is MgCl 2 ; therefore the correct depiction must be A with a ratio of 2 Cl - / 1 Mg 2+ . (b) mols MgCl 2 = = 0.0100 mol MgCl 2 0.952 g MgCl 2 95.21 g MgCl 2 mol MgCl 2 mols Cl - = 0.0100 mol MgCl 2 x 2 mols Cl - 1 mol MgCl 2 = 0.0200 mols Cl - mols/sphere = 0.0200 mols Cl - 8 spheres = 2.50 x 10 -3 mols/sphere
53. SAMPLE PROBLEM 13.9 Depicting a Solution to Find Its Colligative Properties continued (c) molality (m) = = 0.100 m MgCl 2 Assuming this is an IDEAL solution, the van’t Hoff factor, i , should be 3. T f = i (K f m) = 3(1.86 0 C/m x 0.100 m) = 0.558 0 C T f = 0.000 0 C - 0.558 0 C = - 0.558 0 C 0.0100 mol MgCl 2 100. g x 10 3 g 1 kg