This document discusses various linguistic concepts including paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations, semantics, and pragmatics. Paradigmatic relations refer to the substitutional relationships between linguistic units, while syntagmatic relations refer to the sequential ordering of units. Semantics involves literal meanings and relations between meanings, while pragmatics involves implied or intended meanings based on context. The document provides examples and explanations of these concepts.

2. •Paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations
•Semantics and Pragmatics
•Semantics vs. Pragmatics
•Semantic Relations and Pragmatics
•Syntactic Relations and Pragmatics
UNIT2: The Grammatical Structure of Language

3. Paradigmatic and Syntagmatic
Relations

4. Paradigmatic is a term that describes the
substitutional relationships that a linguistic unit
has with other units.
For example in the sentence below (I hunted a bear), each
of the words can be exchanged with a number of other
words without changing the basic syntactic arrangement:
I hunted a bear.
You hunted a mouse.
He fed a cat.
They caged a parrot.
S + V + O

5. The paradigmatic relation is one of the important criteria in
the classification of words into various categories such as
noun, verb, pronouns, etc.
QUESTION: What is the importance of paradigmatic
relations?
Children play happily on the sand.
N V Adv. NP
Det + N
Det + Adj + N

6. QUESTION: Are paradigmatic relations realized at the
syntactic level only?
No, they can be realized at all levels of language. For
example, at the phonological level, we can have
paradigmatic relations.
k ӕ t

7. NOTE: Sets of paradigmatically related items
are often referred to as SYSTEMS, and so
linguists talk about the “consonant system”
or the “pronoun system.”

8. Syntagmatic is a term that refers to the sequential
characteristics of language.
When we construct words and sentences, we
follow a certain order in arranging the individual
items.

9. For instance, in forming the word /kӕt/, we are
obliged to utter the particular phonemes in that
order.
Any other order would make the sequence
unacceptable or entirely different in meaning.

10. Like paradigmatic relations, syntagmatic
relations can operate at all linguistic levels.
In the phrase the boy, which consists of a
determiner plus noun, we can put a variety of
items between the and boy, but we are not
permitted to reverse them.

11. Paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations
together constitute the identity of an item
within the linguistic systems as a whole.
In other words, every linguistic item
(phoneme, morpheme, word, etc.) can be
characterized or identified by…

12. 1. Where it is able to occur sequentially with
other units (its distribution), and
2. Referring to the set of terms with which it
can be interchanged (substituted).

13. QUESTION: Which relation is stronger?
The syntagmatic relation is stronger and can easily
dominate the paradigmatic relation.
Consider:
The butter became rancid.
Here the paradigmatic relation is so weak that it
can allow only three or two substitutions.

14. The dog barked (What else can bark?)
Here, it is obvious that the syntagmatic
relation runs or directs the paradigmatic
relations since the scope of the latter is too
narrow.

15. Syntagm and Paradigm
Syntagm and paradigm govern how signs relate to one
another.
Syntagm
A syntagmatic relationship is one where signs occur in
sequence or parallel and operate together to create meaning.
The sequential nature of language means that linguistic signs
have syntagmatic relationships.

16. Thus, for example, the letters in a word have syntagmatic
relationship with one another, as do the words in a sentence or the
objects in a picture.
f a t
m a t
r a t
h a t
b a t
s a t
c a t
f æ t
m æ t
r æ t
h æ t
b æ t
s æ t
k æ t
syntagmatic
paradigmatic

17. Syntagmatic relationships are often
governed by strict rules, such as spelling
and grammar. They can also have less
clear relationships, such as those of
fashion and social meaning.
Graphotactic rules
enredo → enrredo
Phonotactic rules
/strıŋ/ → /ztrıŋ/

18. Paradigm
A paradigmatic relationship is one where an individual sign may be
replaced by another.
Letters and numbers do not have a paradigmatic relationship.
Items on a menu have paradigmatic relationship when they are in
the same group (starters, main course, sweet) as a choice is made.
Courses have a sequential (syntagmatic) relationship, and thus an
item from the starter menu does not have a paradigmatic
relationship with the sweet menu.

19. Starters Main course Sweets
Paradigmatic relationships are typically associative, in
that both items are in a single membership set.

20. Discussion
An individual sign (a unit) has no separate meaning, and only
delivers 'value' in relation to other units in related sets. Thus
a poodle dog has meaning only in relation to other types of
dog.

21. The table below illustrates syntagmatic and paradigmatic
relationships. The horizontal items have syntagmatic relationships as
they follow on from one another. The vertical items have
paradigmatic relationships as in each column, items can be
substituted for one another.
Relationships <-------- Syntagmatic -------->
Paradigmatic
A dog fell in this chair
The cat sat on the mat
That man ate by a hat

22. The Ordering of Determiners
Determiners occur before nouns, and they indicate
the kind of reference which the nouns have.
Depending on their relative position before a noun,
we distinguish three classes of determiners.

23. Predeterminer
Central
Determiner
Postdeterminer Noun
I met all my many friends
A sentence like this is somewhat unusual, because it is rare for all
three determiner slots to be filled in the same sentence. Generally,
only one or two slots are filled.

24. Predeterminers
Predeterminers specify quantity in the noun which follows
them, and they are of three major types:
1. "Multiplying" expressions, including expressions ending in times:
twice my salary
double my salary
ten times my salary

25. 2. Fractions
half my salary
one-third my salary

26. 3. The words all and both:
all my salary
both my salaries
Predeterminers do not normally co-occur:
*all half my salary

27. Central Determiners
The definite article the and the indefinite article a/an are
the most common central determiners:
all the book
half a chapter

28. As many of our previous examples show, the word my
can also occupy the central determiner slot. This is
equally true of the other possessives:
all your money
all his/her money
all our money
all their money

29. The demonstratives, too, are central determiners:
all these problems
twice that size
four times this amount

30. Postdeterminers
Cardinal and ordinal numerals occupy the
postdeterminer slot:
the two children
his fourth birthday

31. This applies also to general ordinals:
my next project
our last meeting
your previous remark
her subsequent letter

32. Other quantifying expressions are also
postdeterminers:
my many friends
our several achievements
the few friends that I have

33. Unlike predeterminers, postdeterminers can
co-occur:
my next two projects
several other people

34. BASIC SEMANTIC
RELATIONS
1. Paraphrase
One statement is a paraphrase of another
when it has the same meaning as
another.
Philip purchased an automobile.
Philip bought a car

35. 2. Entailment or implication
BASIC SEMANTIC
RELATIONS
One statement entails another when
the second is a logically necessary
consequence of the first.
Alan lives in Toronto.
Alan lives in Canada
Note that the relationship of entailment, unlike that of paraphrase, is one-way:
it is not the case that Alan lives in Canada entails Alan lives in Toronto.

36. 3. Inclusion
BASIC SEMANTIC
RELATIONS
I like fruit.
I like apples.
One statement includes another.
Again, this relationship is unidirectional: I like apples does
not include I like (all) fruit.

37. 4. Contradiction
BASIC SEMANTIC
RELATIONS
Internal Contradiction
Again, this relationship is unidirectional: I like apples does
not include I like (all) fruit.
A statement or sequence of statements is logically
contradictory; that is, if one is true, the other must be false
I spit out the beer I swallowed.

38. 5. Anomaly
BASIC SEMANTIC
RELATIONS
A sentence has no meaning in the
everyday world; it violates semantic rules.
He swallowed a dream.
The rock giggled.
Some apparent anomaly is actually figurative language

39. 5. Lexical Ambiguity
BASIC SEMANTIC
RELATIONS
A word allows more than one meaning in
context.
an old friend
a friend who is aged a friend one has known
for a long time

40. a large bill
a large beak
of a bird
a large check at a
restaurant

41. He lost his head.
He became discomposed
(a metaphorical interpretation).
He was decapitated (the literal
interpretation).

42. 7. Denotation/Connotation
Words have literal or
referential meanings
(denotation).
But they also evoke
feelings, attitudes, or
opinions (connotations).

43. soldier — warrior
relax — loaf
insect — bug
hound — dog
illness — disease — ailment — condition generous — extravagant
fat — obese — plump — portly — stout — substantial

44. For example, some air blowing through a
window is called a draft when it is cold and
undesired, but a breeze when it is cool and
desired; a plan points to careful foresight,
while a scheme suggests deviousness or
manipulation.

45. Sometimes the connotations of words are
associated with their language of origin, as
in the sets below, deriving from English,
French, and Latin, respectively:
fire — flame — conflagration
fear — terror — trepidation
rise — mount — ascend
ask — question — interrogate

46. A word has more than one meaning out of context; the
meanings are related to one another.
court: ‘enclosed area’, ‘retinue of a sovereign’, ‘judicial tribunal’
mouth: ‘opening through which an animate being takes food’, ‘the
part of a river which empties into a lake or sea’
bug: ‘insect’, ‘enthusiast’, ‘electronic device for eavesdropping’,
‘design defect in a computer’
fire: ‘to burn or ignite’, ‘to shoot a gun’, ‘to discharge from one’s
employment’.
8. Polysemy

47. Two words sound and are written the same but are
different in meaning.
8. Homonymy
bark1 ‘outer covering of wood’/bark2 ‘harsh sound, uttered by a dog’
sound1 ‘noise’/ sound2 ‘body of water’/sound3 ‘free from defect’
band1 ‘thin strip for encircling an object’/ band2 ‘group of people’
swallow1 ‘to ingest’/ swallow2 ‘a type of bird’

48. Homonyms represent different entries in a dictionary,
while the different meanings of a polysemous word
are listed under a single entry.
However, without consulting a dictionary, it is often
diffcult to distinguish between polysemy and
homonymy, that is, when one is dealing with two
meanings for a single word or two different words.

49. If the two forms belong to different parts of speech, one can
usually conclude that they are homonyms. In the case of
polysemy, the meanings are related (either literally or
figuratively), though the connection between different
meanings may sometimes be diffcult to perceive (as in the
meanings ‘a series of connected mountains’ or ‘a unit for
cooking’ for range).