This document summarizes a study on the sedimentology and sequence stratigraphy of evaporites in the Middle Jurassic Buqu Formation in the Qiangtang Basin, Tibet, China. Two lithofacies associations were identified: (1) sparry oolitic limestone–dolomite–gypsum/anhydrite deposited in an intertidal–supratidal setting, and (2) micrite–carbonaceous mudstone–gypsum/anhydrite deposited in a subtidal lagoon setting. Two depositional sequences were distinguished: Buqu sequence 1 and Buqu sequence 2. Gypsum of the intertidal setting is mainly developed in a lowstand system tract in both sequences, while

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Sedimentology and sequence stratigraphy of evaporites in the Middle Jurassic
Buqu Formation of the Qiangtang Basin, Tibet, China
Article in Carbonates and Evaporites · October 2016
DOI: 10.1007/s13146-016-0324-3
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2. ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Sedimentology and sequence stratigraphy of evaporites
in the Middle Jurassic Buqu Formation of the Qiangtang Basin,
Tibet, China
Xiaoqun Yang1 • Tailiang Fan1 • Shuai Tang1 • Jixuan Li2 • Miaomiao Meng1 •
Peng Hu1
Accepted: 12 October 2016
Ó Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2016
Abstract Qiangtang Basin is a large Mesozoic marine sedi-
mentary basin located on the northern Qinghai-Tibet plateau.
Multiple sets of evaporites were observed in the Middle
Jurassic Buqu Formation through field outcrop description
and thin sections analysis, so as to form the sets of evaporite–
carbonate sedimentary sequences. The evaporites in the Buqu
Formationare representedbygypsumandanhydriterocksthat
contain minor secondary diagenetic features such as massive,
rosette, chicken-wire, and satin spar gypsum. Two lithofacies
association types were identified in the Buqu Formation,
including sparry oolitic limestone–dolomite–gypsum/anhy-
drite and micrite–carbonaceous mudstone–gypsum/anhy-
drite. The former was deposited in an intertidal–supratidal
(tidal flat) setting and the latter was deposited in a subtidal
lagoon setting. Two depositional sequences were distin-
guished, including Buqu sequence 1 and Buqu sequence 2.
Gypsum of the intertidal setting is mainly developed in a
lowstand system tract in both Buqu sequences 1 and 2, while
gypsum of the subtidal setting is mainly developed in a
highstand system tract in Buqu sequence 2. Combining the
measured evaporites thickness in the field with sedimentary
facies analysis, the distribution of the Middle Jurassic Buqu
Formation evaporites is clear in the Qiangtang Basin, which
may serve as a local seal for oil and gas plays in this region.
Keywords Sedimentology Á Sequence stratigraphy Á
Evaporites Á Middle Jurassic Buqu Formation Á
Qiangtang Basin
Introduction
The Mesozoic Qiangtang Basin is considered to be an
exploration breakthrough area for oil and gas resources in
the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau with great potential (Tan et al.
2002; Fu et al. 2010). A total of more than 200 oil and gas
points have appeared in the Qiangtang Basin, which indi-
cates that many hydrocarbon generation processes had
occurred there (Qin 2006; Nan et al. 2008). The source
rocks consist mostly of Triassic–Jurassic mudstones,
limestones, and shales. The highly porous and permeable
clastic rocks, dolostones, and organic reefs (banks) are also
observed as the reservoir rocks in the basin. Moreover, the
reservoir quality accompanying the evaporites has previ-
ously been underappreciated (Jiang et al. 2015). Evaporites
are developed widely in multiple series of strata in the
region, especially in the Middle Jurassic Buqu and Xiali
formations (Li and Luo 2001). Evaporitic deposits form
important seals for hydrocarbon reservoirs (Taylor 1998).
The distribution of the evaporites, with a good sealing
ability, always coincides with the oil and gas distribution in
the Tethys tectonic domain. Therefore, the genetic types
and space–time distribution of the evaporites are issues that
many geologists are concerned with, especially in oil and
gas exploration (Luo et al. 2003).
This article presents the results of lithofacies and sedi-
mentary characteristics of the measured profiles in the
study area. The objectives of this article are to (1) describe
the lithofacies types and associations of the evaporites in
the Middle Jurassic Buqu Formation in the Qiangtang
Basin; (2) discuss the sequence stratigraphic characteristics
and to establish the evaporite depositional model; and (3)
identify the distribution of the evaporites in the Middle
Jurassic Buqu Formation, which may serve as a local seal
for oil and gas plays in the region.
& Xiaoqun Yang
sidiansi@126.com
1
School of Energy Resources, China University of
Geosciences, Beijing 100083, People’s Republic of China
2
Southern Exploration Division Company, SINOPEC,
Chengdu 610041, People’s Republic of China
123
Carbonates Evaporites
DOI 10.1007/s13146-016-0324-3

3. Geological and stratigraphic setting
The Qiangtang Basin is located in the Qinghai-Tibet Pla-
teau hinterland (83°E–95°E, 32°N–35°N), and covers an
area of 18 9 104
km2
with an average altitude above
4500 m. The basin is in the central part of the Tethys realm
(Wang et al. 2006a, b), which is adjacent to the Persian
Gulf in the Middle East, which is considered one of the
most abundant sources of oil and gas resources in the world
(Zhang et al. 2009). The Qiangtang is a large sedimentary
basin situated between the Bangonghu–Nujiang and
Lazhulong–Jinshajiang suture zones, which can be divided
into the northern Qiangtang depression, the central uplift
zone, and the southern Qiangtang depression (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1 Location of the Middle
Jurassic Buqu Formation
stratigraphic sections and
previous field gypsum
observation points Modified
from Li et al. 2009
Fig. 2 Deposited strata and
properties of the Qiangtang
Basin (Zhang et al. 2009)
Carbonates Evaporites
123

4. The basement of the Qiangtang basin consists of pre-
Devonian metamorphic rocks and polycyclic marine sedi-
mentary rocks developed in the Late Paleozoic–Mesozoic
Era. The Mesozoic marine sedimentary strata are well
developed in the basin, with sedimentary thickness of
6000–13,000 m. The Jurassic in Qiangtang Basin is mainly
composed of three sets of clastic rocks and two sets of
carbonate rocks, which were distributed alternately. Clastic
rocks are mainly developed in the Quemo Cuo, Xiali, and
Xueshan formations, while carbonate rocks are mainly
developed in the Buqu and Suowa formations (Wang et al.
2004; Ma et al. 2009). The evaporites are developed locally
in the Buqu and Xiali formations (Fig. 2).
This study focuses on the Middle Jurassic Buqu For-
mation evaporites–carbonates intervals, which covers
clastic rock of the Quemo Cuo Formation, and was over-
lapped by the dark red, grayish-green silty sandstone and
mudstone of the Xiali Formation (Fig. 2). Extensive dis-
tribution of evaporites is the product of continuous dry
weather conditions in the Middle-Late Jurassic Period in
the Qiangtang Basin (Yu et al. 2002; Fu et al. 2010; Zeng
et al. 2012). The environmental setting of the Buqu
Fig. 3 Rock types of Buqu Formation in evaporation environment.
a Regular alternation of bedded gypsum (grayish white) and
dolomites (black) (Nadigangri section). b Crumpled gypsum layers
(Nadigangri section). c White silty crystal gypsum rock (Nadigangri
section). d Selenitic gypsum rich in organic matter (Shuanghu).
e Dolomitic gypsum displaying chicken-wire structure (Nadigangri
section). f Gypsum filling in the fractures of the limestone (Duoyong
section). g Anhydrite rock. Thin-section photomicrograph showing
small-scale fracture filled with siliceous composition. h Dolomitic
gypsum rock with fibrous structure (Nadigangri section). i Dolomicrite
(Nadigangri section). j Silt-crystalline dolomite. Red material indi-
cates pores and fracture (Changsheshan section)
Carbonates Evaporites
123

5. Formation is ramp (Zhao et al. 2002; Ma et al. 2009).
Clastic rocks are mainly deposited in a tidal flat setting. So
far, more than 300 field evaporites points have been found
in the Quemo Cuo, Buqu, Xiali and Suowa formations,
among which the evaporites are commonly associated with
the carbonate in the Buqu Formation.
Materials and methods
Geological mappings to the scale 1:250,000 were carried
out in the study area, and four measured lithologic sections
were selected for detailed description of rocks and sam-
pling, including the Nadigangri, Changshuihexi, Chang-
sheshan, and Duoyong sections (Fig. 1). More than 100
thin sections were prepared for petrographic studies. Eva-
porite lithofacies are described based on relationships
between the evaporite and the associated matrix (Maiklem
et al. 1969; Warren 2010). The terminology employed in
description, in principle, follows the carbonate classifica-
tion of Dunham (1962). Detailed observation, description,
and measurement of the rocks in the sections, including
lithology, thickness, geometry, sedimentary structure, and
fossil contents, were conducted. In addition, the stratal
surface structures have been made in the field.
In addition, the previous four measured sections and ten
evaporites observation points were referred in the Middle
Jurassic Buqu Formation (Internal report, ‘‘Evaluation and
exploration of Qiangtang basin’’).
Results
Lithofacies
The lithofacies types of the Buqu Formation are complex,
including limestones, dolomites, and evaporites. Most
evaporites are composed of gypsum and anhydrite, in
addition to a small amount of halite, dolomite, clay,
organic matter, iron oxide, etc. (Shen and Ji 2001).
The general thin-bedded gypsum–carbonate layers
contain minor secondary diagenetic features such as mas-
sive, rosette, chicken-wire, and satin spar gypsum. Large
sets of laminated grayish white gypsum are distributed with
Fig. 3 continued
Carbonates Evaporites
123

6. thin-bedded black dolomite layers (Fig. 3a), which shows
the crumpled phenomenon for the plasticity of gypsum
(Fig. 3b). Local milky white, massive, and rosette gypsum
rich in organic matter may intersect this lithofacies
(Fig. 3c, d). Radial porphyroblastic gypsum crystals can
form individual round clusters that are centimeters across
(Fig. 3d).
Some dolomitic gypsum displays chicken-wire structure
(Fig. 3e), which is distinguished within the secondary
gypsum. The fractures of the carbonate rocks are filled with
gypsum (Fig. 3f). Microscopic investigation has shown
that the evaporites of the Buqu Formation are composed
dominantly of anhydrite crystals. Anhydrite rock shows
fibrous structure, in which fractures are filled with siliceous
composition, clay, and organic matter (Fig. 3g). Dolomitic
gypsum rock also shows fibrous structure, and the dolo-
mitic content is clearly higher (Fig. 3h). Few scattered,
isolated lath-shaped anhydrite inclusions with local
Fig. 4 Type-1 lagoonal carbonate-evaporite succession. a Marlstone–micritic limestone–oolitic limestone–dolomite–gypsum rock. b Bioclastic
limestone with the vertical fracture filled with gypsum. See legend of Fig. 8
Carbonates Evaporites
123

7. protrusions and irregular edges are observed in some
gypsum crystals (Fig. 3i).
The carbonates are primarily comprised of dolomi-
crite and micrite, accompanied by the above evaporites.
The finely laminated organic matter is distributed
heterogeneously. Fractures and intercrystalline vugs are
fully filled with siliceous composition, gypsum, and
dolomicrite. Dissolved gypsum in intercrystalline vugs
of dolomite may result in good dissolved pores (Fig. 3i).
The crystal forms of silt-crystalline dolomite are not
preserved well due to strong dolomitization. Most of the
original rock grain is destroyed, with the exception of a
small part of nondolomitized bioclast (Fig. 3j). Various
types of limestones are found interbedded with
Fig. 5 Type-2 carbonate–evaporite succession. a Micritic limestone and carbonaceous mudstone. b Dolomitic gypsum rock with chicken-wire
structure. c Carbonaceous mudstone above the gypsum. d Measured dolomitic gypsum rock thickness (16.7 m). See legend of Fig. 8
Carbonates Evaporites
123

8. evaporites, including sparry oolitic limestone, sparry
bioclastic limestone, sparry calcarenite, micritic lime-
stone, and so on.
Lithofacies association types
Sparry oolitic limestone–dolomite–gypsum/anhydrite
The gypsum/anhydrite of the Middle Jurassic Buqu
Formation is exposed locally. This carbonate–evaporite
succession consists mainly of different lithofacies types,
such as marlstone–micritic limestone–oolitic limestone–
dolomite–gypsum rocks. Outcrops show multiple shal-
lowing-upward successions. In the lower part, these
layers are interbedded with each other (Fig. 4a). In the
upper part, some vertical fractures are developed in
bioclastic limestone, which are filled with gypsum
(Fig. 4b).
Micrite–carbonaceous mudstone–gypsum/anhydrite
This lithofacies association type includes micritic lime-
stone, carbonaceous mudstone, and gypsum/anhydrite
(Fig. 5). The gypsum nodules surrounded by dolomite
display chicken-wire structure. The thickness of the dolo-
mitic gypsum rock could be as much as 16.7 m. Below the
gypsum layer, the micritic limestone and carbonaceous
mudstone form interbedded layers. The carbonaceous
mudstone could be as much as 0.5 m thick, reflecting the
low-energy lagoonal setting.
Discussions
Sequence stratigraphy
Explanation
Owing to the restriction from the world’s oceans by some
barriers, evaporite stratigraphic sequences cannot be
accurately consistent with global sea level changes. The
deposition of varied sedimentary sequences is usually
controlled by climate conditions (Manzi et al. 2013). The
arid climate in a restricted setting is necessary for the
formation of the evaporites (Kinsman 1966; Schreiber and
Tabakh 2000). The cycles are likely controlled by localized
high-frequency changes in relative sea level and/or sabkha
hydrology. Based on the changes of the lithofacies and
Fig. 6 Stratigraphic sequence of the Middle Jurassic Buqu Formation in the Nadigangri section (carbon and oxygen isotope data after Xie et al.
2002). LST lowstand system tract, TST transgressive system tract, HST highstand system tract (see legend of Fig. 8)
Carbonates Evaporites
123

9. carbon and oxygen isotope data (Xie et al. 2002), the
Middle Jurassic Buqu Formation can be divided into two
sequences (SQs), including SQ1 and SQ2 (Fig. 6).
The first sequence (SQ1) was developed in the Lower
Buqu Formation. It is a typical carbonate sedimentary
sequence controlled by sea level changes. The gypsum
selenite is interpreted as layers of crystals grown in com-
petition. The growth occurred mainly under stable salinity
conditions and the water depth was relatively low (tens of
centimeters to a few meters), indicating a supratidal setting
according to Ortı´ et al. (2014). The lower interbedded
gypsum layers were developed in a lowstand system tract.
With the rising of the sea level, micrite and mudstone were
deposited in the transgressive system tract. In the later
highstand system tract, several sets of grainstone were
developed well. From the transgressive systems tract to the
Fig. 7 Sequence stratigraphic model for the two lithofacies association types. LSW denotes a lowstand wedge of gypsum (see legend of Fig. 8)
Modified from Tucker 1991)
Carbonates Evaporites
123

10. highstand system tract in SQ1, the trends of a lighter car-
bon isotopic composition are shown obviously (Fig. 6). In
the maximum marine transgression stage, micritic lime-
stone, and marl are deposited under normal marine salinity
conditions. Marine organisms consume a large amount of
12
C and are buried quickly in organic matter, resulting in
richer 13
C in the carbonate (Xie et al. 2002).
At the bottom of the second sequence (SQ2), carbon
isotope data have a positive-offset, showing the change of
the sedimentary setting. However, the curve of the oxygen
isotope does not fit well with the sequence boundary, which
may be a result of the later diagenesis. In contrast to the
13
C, the 18
O is easily affected by the later diagenetic
alteration (Veizer and Hoefs 1976). In the lowstand system
tract (LST) of SQ2, several sets of evaporites are deposited
in the supratidal setting. An interesting phenomenon is that
the gypsum rocks are accompanied by the micritic
limestone and carbonaceous mudstone. This can be inter-
preted to have been deposited in a low-energy, hypersaline,
and restricted shallow subtidal environment.
Model
Previous studies by Tucker (1991), Warren (2006), and
Catuneanu et al. (2011) indicated that the gypsum rocks
could be associated with many kinds of limestones. The
gypsum rocks that are associated with sparry oolitic lime-
stone and dolomite could be developed in a supratidal–
intertidal setting (Fig. 7a, b). However, the gypsum rocks
that are associated with the carbonaceous mudstone and
micritic limestone are developed in subtidal lagoon setting.
In terms of sequence stratigraphic models for carbonate–
evaporite basins, two principal types were distinguished by
Tucker (1991), depending on the degree of drawdown:
Fig. 8 Distributions of evaporites in the Middle Jurassic Buqu Formation, Qiangtang Basin
Carbonates Evaporites
123

11. (1) incomplete drawdown, giving marginal gypsum wedges
and basinal laminated gypsum, and (2) complete draw-
down, giving halite basin-fills (Catuneanu et al. 2011).
The contortion of the evaporite–carbonate layers may be
due to causes, e.g., slumping, burial, ductile deformation,
dissolution, etc., which create the subsidence in the local
area. The carbonaceous mudstone was developed as a
condensed section in the maximum flooding surface (MFS)
(Fig. 7c). When the sea level dropped, evaporites were
deposited in the high-salinity closed basin (Fig. 7d).
Around the inner margins of the platforms, sabkhas and
hypersaline lagoons could be very extensive during the
highstand, although not necessarily creating thick succes-
sions (Catuneanu et al. 2011). Therefore, type-1 gypsum is
mainly deposited in the supratidal setting during the low-
stand system tract, while type-2 gypsum is always depos-
ited in the normal carbonate lagoonal setting during the
highstand system tract.
Distribution of gypsum rocks
Because of the poor outcrop and evaporite mineral disso-
lution at surface conditions, the cyclicity of gypsum layer
deposition is often unclear. On the basis of the changes of
the carbon and oxygen isotope data in the Nadigangri
section and lithofacies characteristics of the studied sec-
tions, the correlation of the stratigraphic profiles shows
evaporite distribution has the characteristics of local
distribution and multilayers (Fig. 8). In the LST, the setting
of gypsum is mainly intertidal–supratidal facies, while it is
mainly subtidal lagoon facies in HST. In the Wulawula
Lake section, the deposits are mainly the marginal clastic
sediments. In the Changshuihexi section, grainstone is
deposited in the shoal setting. In the Nadigangri and
Duoyong sections, the gypsum rocks represent the restric-
ted platform lagoon deposits. In the Quruiqiala section, the
micrite, marlstones, and shale show a continental slope-
basin sedimentary setting.
The gypsum rocks of the Middle Jurassic Buqu For-
mation are mainly distributed in a northwest trend in
Qiangtang Basin (Fig. 9). The gypsum rocks are deposited
mainly in the shallow lagoon. In some places, the gypsum
thickness increases due to fluid movement, such as an
Anduo profile with a gypsum thickness of 125 m (salt
dome). The present thickness was controlled by the formal
sediment and later movement. The evaporite deposition of
the Buqu Formation has the characteristics of local distri-
bution and multilayering, which are controlled by the local
restricted setting.
Conclusions
The following is concluded from this study:
1. The evaporites are mainly represented by gypsum and
anhydrite rocks, associated with carbonate rocks and
Fig. 9 Distribution of evaporites in the Middle Jurassic Buqu Formation, Qiangtang Basin. Black triangle represents the gypsum thickness for
the contortion and local thickening
Carbonates Evaporites
123

12. carbonaceous mudstone. Minor secondary diagenetic
features such as massive, rosette, chicken-wire, and
satin spar gypsum exist. There are two primary
lithofacies associations, including sparry oolitic lime-
stone–dolomite–gypsum/anhydrite and carbonaceous
mudstone–micritic limestone–gypsum/anhydrite.
2. Evaporite rocks are mainly developed in lowstand and
highstand systems tracts. The sparry oolitic limestone–
dolomite–gypsum/anhydrite type of the intertidal–
supratidal setting is mainly developed in lowstand
system tracts, while the carbonaceous mudstone–
micritic limestone–gypsum of the subtidal lagoon is
mainly developed in highstand system tracts.
3. The evaporite deposition of the Buqu Formation has
the characteristics of local collection and multilayer-
ing, which are controlled by the local restricted setting.
Furthermore, the evaporites may be severed as a local
seal for oil and gas plays. It is possible, judging from
the development of the evaporites and distribution of
the sedimentary facies, to search for the piercement oil
pools in favorable structures of the basin.
Acknowledgements We thank Jiasheng Zhou, senior engineer, and
Zhiwen Wang, senior engineer, from the Southern Exploration
Division Company, SINOPEC, China, who provided guidance and
help in the field. We thank LetPub (http://www.letpub.com) for its
linguistic assistance during the preparation of this manuscript. Our
deepest gratitude goes to the editors and the anonymous reviewers for
their careful work and thoughtful suggestions that have helped
improve this paper substantially.
Funding was provided by Major State Basic Research Development
Program (Grant No. 2012CB214802).
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Geol China 21:415–420 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Carbonates Evaporites
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