This document contains a student's exam responses for a course on second language acquisition. The student provides answers to multiple choice and short answer questions about topics relating to second language acquisition, including motivations for learning a second language, the initial state of first and second language development, necessary conditions for language learning, how language is systematic, symbolic and social, error analysis theory, Krashen's monitor model, the relationship between language and the brain, the effects of multilingualism, and models of the second language learning process including the role of input and interaction.

1. Cyprus International University
Institute of Graduate Studies and Research
English Language Teaching Department
Second language Acquisition
(Take-home Final Exam)
Student Name: Mohammad Faisal Habib
Student Number: 21814715
Course Name:SecondLanguage Acquisition
Course Code:ELT 502
Year: 2018 – 2019 Spring
Course Instructor: Assoc. Prof. Behbud Muhammedzade

2. Part A
Q1. List at least five possible motivations for learning a second language at an
older age.
Answer:
According to Saville-Troike (2006, p. 10), motivation for learning a second
language may arise from the following situations:
• Invasion or conquest of one’s country by speakers of another language.
• A need or desire to contact speakers of other languages in economic or other
specific domains.
• Immigration to a country where use of a language other than one’s L1 is required.
• Adoption of religious beliefs and practices which involve use of another language.
• A need or desire to pursue educational experiences where access requires
proficiency in another language.
• A desire for occupational or social advancement which is furthered by knowledge of
another language.
• An interest in knowing more about peoples of other cultures and having access to
their technologies or literatures.” (As cited in Saville-Troike, 2006, p. 10).
Q2. What is the initial state of language development for L1 and L2
respectively?
Answer:
Innate capacity is the starting point for L1 acquisition as all children in the
world are born with a natural ability to acquire their first language (Saville-Troike,
2006). On the other hand, it has not been proved that older people still have that
innate linguistic capacity they were born with, but they do have L1 knowledge which
they rely on when learning a second language (Saville-Troike, 2006). Besides, L2
learners have already learned about the world and about communicative skills used
when interacting with other people according to the context (Saville-Troike, 2006).
Q3. What is a necessary condition for language learning (L1 or L2)?
Answer:
A necessary condition for both L1 acquisition and L2 learning is receiving a
lot of language input (Saville-Troike, 2006). Children also need reciprocal interaction
when acquiring their L1, but L2 learners do not need to interact with other speakers
as they can reach a high proficiency level in the target language by only receiving
input from non-reciprocal sources such as watching TV, listening to music or reading
(Saville-Troike, 2006).

3. Part B
Q1. Briefly explain how language is (a) systematic (b) symbolic and (c) social.
Answer:
Language is (a) systematic, (b) symbolic, and (c) social in the following ways:
a. Languages consist of recurrent elements which occur in regular patterns of
relationships. Language is created according to rules or principles which speakers are
usually unconscious of using if language was acquired in early childhood.
b. Sequences of sounds or letters do not inherently possess meaning. These symbols
of language have meaning because of a tacit agreement among the speakers of a
language.
c. Each language reflects the social requirements of the society that uses it. Although
humans possess the potential to acquire an L1 because of their neurological makeup,
that potential can be developed only through interaction with others in the society.
We use language to communicate with others about the human experience.
Q3. Disscusse the error analysis theory with its central figure.
Answer:
Error analysis is a very important area of applied linguistics and of the second
and foreign language learning. Applied linguistics, as a field, tries to deal with the
problems and issues related to language, as well as to its learning and teaching; it also
attempts to give solutions for these problems and issues.
Error analysis provides a deep insight for understanding of the process of language
learning. Attempts for better understanding the process of language acquisition and
learning have been made for a long time (Richards, 1971, 1974; James, 1989, 1998;
Norrish, 1983; Ellis, 1995; Ziahisseiny, 1999; Keshavarz, 2003, 2006; Darus, 2009).
Results of these studies were applied in the second and foreign language teaching and
learning. It was assumed that (Corder, 1967, 1971 & 1974) the learners learn the
second and foreign language in the same way, to some extent, as the children acquire
their first language. While acquiring their first language, children also make a lot of
errors and mistakes
Q5. Discusse the monitor model theory with its figure
Answer:
The input hypothesis, also known as the monitor model, is a group of five
hypotheses of second-language acquisition developed by the linguist Stephen
Krashen in the 1970s and 1980s. Krashen originally formulated the input hypothesis
as just one of the five hypotheses, but over time the term has come to refer to the five
hypotheses as a group.

4. The five hypotheses that Krashen proposed are as follows:
 The input hypothesis. This states that learners progress in their knowledge of
the language when they comprehend language input that is slightly more
advanced than their current level. Krashen called this level of input "i+1",
where "i" is the learner's interlanguage and "+1" is the next stage of language
acquisition.
 The acquisition–learning hypothesis claims that there is a strict separation
between acquisition and learning; Krashen saw acquisition as a purely
subconscious process and learning as a conscious process, and claimed that
improvement in language ability was only dependent upon acquisition and
never on learning.
 The monitor hypothesis states that consciously learned language can only be
used to monitor language output; it can never be the source of spontaneous
speech.
 The natural order hypothesis states that language is acquired in a particular
order, and that this order does not change between learners, and is not affected
by explicit instruction.
 The affective filter hypothesis. This states that learners' ability to acquire
language is constrained if they are experiencing negative emotions such as
fear or embarrassment. At such times the affective filter is said to be "up".

5. Part C
Q1. Discuss the relation between language and the brain in SLA.
Answer:
Concept that particular locations in the brain may be specialized for language
functions date back at least into the nineteenth century. Paul Pierre Broca ( 1861 ,
1865 ) observed that an area in the left frontal lobe ( Broca’s area ) appeared to be
responsible for the ability to speak and noted that an injury to the left side of the brain
was much more likely to result in language loss than was an injury to the right side.
Wernicke ( 1874 ) further identified a nearby area which is adjacent to the part of the
cortex that processes audio input ( Wernicke’s area ) as also being central to language
processing.
Communicative functions for which each hemisphere of the brain is primarily
specialized are listed in Table 4.1 , as suggested by L1 research reviewed in Obler
and Gjerlow ( 1999 ).
In discussing hemispheric specialization, Obler and Gjerlow emphasize that, “while
localizing language phenomena in the brain is the eventual goal of neurolinguistics,
we no longer expect that there are language areas that are entirely ’responsible’ for
language, or even ’dominant’ for language, to be contrasted with areas that have
nothing to do with it” (1999:11–12).
Q2. Discuss the effect of multilingualism in SLA context.
Answer: Multilingualism has some negative and positive effect in terms of SLA here
are these efficts:
Positive effects:
1. foreign language study is good for “training the mind.”
2. an essential characteristic of “educated” and “cultured” members of society
3. on intellectual function based on “measures of conceptual development,
creativity, metalinguistic awareness, semantic development, and analytic
skills” (p93).
Negative effects:
1. negative impact on general intelligence
2. capacity limitations for language acquisition and maintenance, that
simultaneous bilingualism in childhood may result in a narrower range of
lexical development in either language and that intensive and continued use of
L2 many reduce accessibility of L1.

6. Q4. Which models relating to L2 learning processes do you feel you can use to explain
your own learning process in your L2 (s)? Does one seem more plausible than the
others? Explain why or why not.
Answer:
Personally, as a teacher of English as second language, I prefer a model that
pays much attention to interaction among students and activities. Although, I know
that it's important to keep in mind that theories and models of language acquisition
are just ideas created by researchers to explain their observations.
In my point of view, I believe that the interactionist approach (sociocultural
theory) can be a suitable model for this type of learning process. According to this
model, children learn language out of a desire to communicate with the world around
them. Language emerges from, and is dependent upon, social interaction.
For example, infants being raised by only their mother are more likely to learn
the word “mama”, and less likely to develop “dada”. Among the first words we learn
are ways to demand attention or food.

7. Part D
Q2. Discuss the input and interaction in SLA context.
Answer:
Input, as well as interaction, is important to L1 as well as L2 acquisition. Both
input and interaction play similar importance in second language acquisition process.
It could be assumed that different treatment either to input or interaction might affect
the process of second language acquisition. More over, input without being followed
by sufficient interaction may not help much the second language acquisition. On the
other hand, input which is modified interactionally may result in better development
of second language acquisition
Ellis (2003) proposes two aspects of input that influence L2 acquisition: input
frequency and comprehensible input. Input, which is accurate and intensive, will
seem to result in better L2 acquisition. In comparison, less number and varieties
might cause unsatisfactory L2 acquisition (p. 269). In other words, the more input to
L2 learners, the more they will appear in the output (Ellis, 2003; Mitchell and Myles,
2004). Yet, in reality, many factors appear to influence L2 acquisition and to some
extent become more complicated because input, output and interaction have cyclical
cause and effect or 'chain reaction' one another.
Q3. Discusse the interaction as the genesis of language (Vygotsky's Sociocultural
Theory) in SLA context.
Answer:
Based on Sociocultural Theory of Vygotsky. Its theory considers interaction
as an essential force for learning. Where child learns by adults.
• Interpersonal interaction.- a person has to maintain a communication and social
relationship with others in certain events or situations. The symbolic
meditation occurs in Zone of Proximal Development (Vygotsky) do it through the
scaffolding.
• Intrapersonal interaction. The communication that occurs inside of each individual.
Q5. Briefly explain macrosocial factors in SLA context.
Answer:
The macrosocial factors are at several levels in the ecological context of SLA:
1.Global and National status of L1 and L2
A language has power as a symbol of a nation, (when ot is been stablished); to
a person it is important to have a native language for national unity and, for
inmigrants it is important because of economic or cultural reasons.

8. 2. Boundaries and identities
Linguistic boundaries and national borders, serve both to unify speakers as
members of one language community within the territory, and to separate them from
those outside. People are motivated to learn a new language to seem others, and if
they have another language they have to learn the new one to communicate their
ideas however, the do not loose their identity
3. Institutional forces and constraints
Some institutions regulate and organize the lives of people I religion,
education and politics, as these social factors determine which type of language will
be used in certain situations. The social status determines the opportunities to acquire
L2 , because of the education the learer had received, most of the times the public
education is not the best in the country.
4. Social categories
Social dimensions: age, (children learn better L2 than adults, their brain is
flexible to changes) sex (women are more likely to be taught by native speakers, men
have personal differences with them), ethnicity (people of ethnic groups who perceive
they have much in common with others are willing to interact), education level,
occupation, and economic status.
5. Circumstances of learning
Differences in cognitive style (field-dependent (FD) and field-independent)
based on the experiences and environment of the student. Difference in the
circumstances has to do with Informal / Naturalistic, where a learner gets the new
language interact with other because of its multilingual environment or travels.
Formal/ Instructed language, where it is acquired I schools down by rules established
in accord with the needs, beliefs, values, and customs of their cultural settings.
Conclusion to all factors:
No individual factors in the macrosocial context of SLA can be isolated from
others. Circumtances of learning are related to the nation that the leaner lives in and
its history, culture, and geopolitical position, and to social and economic
categorizations within the society, which in turn are related to historical, institutional,
and political forces and constraints, all of which are related to and reflect or
determine the status of the language involved. All of these factors powerfully
influence the microsocial context of learning.