This document summarizes key concepts and debates in theories of second language acquisition (SLA). It discusses: 1. Domains and generalizations that SLA theories should account for, such as age, cognition, native language, input, affective factors, and cultural learning. 2. Lightbown's 10 generalizations about SLA processes and Lightbown and Spada's myths about SLA. 3. Criteria for viable SLA theories proposed by Larsen-Freeman and Long, which emphasize accounting for variability, complexity, and non-linearity in the acquisition process. 4. Hot topics in SLA research, including debates around explicit/implicit learning, awareness,

1. CH.10. Toward a theory of
second language acquisition
H. Douglas Brown
Principles of
Language Learning and Teaching

2. Building a Theory of SLA
Topics:
• Domains and generalizations
• Hypothesis and claims
• Criteria for a viable theory

3. A theory of SLA
= an interrelated set of hypotheses/ claims about how people
acquire a 2nd language.

4. Domains and Generalizations
Classification of learner variables (Yorio, 1976)
1) Age
2) Cognition
3) Native language
4) Input
5) Affective domain
6) Educational background

6. Domains and Generalizations
Domains of consideration in a theory of SLA:
A set of domains of consideration in a theory of SLA include:
1) General understanding of what language is, what learning
is & what teaching is.
2) Knowledge of how children learn their L1.
3) Understand the differences between adult and child
learning and between first and second language
acquisition.
4) General principles of human learning and intelligence
controls to second language learning.
1. A theory of SLA includes an understanding of language,
learning, and teaching.
2. Knowledge of children's learning of their 1st language
provides insights to SLA.
3. The differences between adult and child learning and
between 1st and 2nd language acquisition must be accounted
for.
4. 2nd language learning is governed by general principles of
human learning and intelligence.
5. There is variation across learners in cognitive style and
within a learner in strategy choice.

7. Domains and Generalizations (ctn’d)
Domains of consideration in a theory of SLA:
6. Personality (= the way people view and reveal themselves
in communication) will affect the 2nd language learning.
7. Learning a 2nd culture is intertwined with learning a 2nd
language.
8. The acquisition of communicative competence (=
language socialization) is the learners’ ultimate goal
9. The linguistic contrasts between the native and target
language form one source of difficulty in learning a 2nd
language.

8. Domains and Generalizations (ctn’d)
• Beneficial learner strategies cannot be specified without reference
to age, human learning in general, and some affective factors.
• In comparing and contrasting the 1st and 2nd language acquisition,
it is impossible to ignore affective and cultural variables and
differences between adult and child cognition.
• Determining the source of L2 learner’s errors involves
consideration of cognitive strategies and styles, group dynamics
and even the validity of data–gathering procedures.
• No single component of this “theory” is sufficient alone: the
interaction and interdependence of other components are necessary.

9. Lightbown's 10 generalizations about SLA (1985)
1) Adults and adolescents can "acquire" a 2nd language.
2) The learner creates a systematic interlanguage that is
often characterized by the same systematic errors as
[those of] the child learning the same language as the 1st
language, as well as others based on the learner's own
native language.
3) There are predictable sequences in acquisition so that
certain structures have to be acquired before others can
be integrated.
4) Practice does not make perfect.
5) Knowing a language rule does not mean one will be able
to use it in communicative interaction.

10. Lightbown's 10 generalizations about SLA (ctn’d)
6) Isolated explicit error correction is usually ineffective in
changing language behaviour.
7) For adult learners, acquisition stops/fossilizes before
the learner has achieved nativelike mastery of the target
language.
8) One cannot achieve nativelike command of a 2nd
language in one hour a day.
9) The learner’s task is enormous because language is
enormously complex.
10) A learner’s ability to understand language in a
meaningful context exceeds his/her ability to
comprehend decontextualized language and to produce
language of comparable complexity and accuracy.

11. Lightbown & Spada’s myths about SLA (1993)
1. Languages are learned mainly through imitation.
2. Parents correct young children when they make errors.
3. People with high IQs are good language learners.
4. The earlier a 2nd language is introduced in school programs, the
greater the likelihood of success in learning.
5. Most of the 2nd language learners’ mistakes due to interference
from their 1st language.
6. Learners' errors should be corrected as soon as they are made in
order to prevent the formation of bad habits.

12. Group Activity: SLA Myths
 Figure out why each statement is a myth
 Provide examples or counter-examples in the language classroom.
1) Languages are learned mainly through imitation.
2) Parents usually correct young children when they make
errors.
3) People with high IQs are good language learners.
4) The earlier a second language is introduced in school
programs, the greater the likelihood of success in
learning.
5) Most of the mistakes that second language learners
make are due to interference from their first language.
6) Learners' errors should be corrected as soon as they are
made in order to prevent the formation of bad habits.

13. Diane Larsen-Freeman (1997) criteria for a viable SLA theory
 SLA is a dynamic, complex and non-linear system
 Each learner takes a different path to achieve success.
 Lessons/criteria from the chaos theory for a theory of SLA:
 Beware of false dichotomies (contradictions). Look for
complementarity, inclusiveness and interface.
 Beware of linear, causal approaches to theorizing because
SLA is very complex with so many interacting factors.
 Beware of overgeneralizations - focus on details.
 Beware of reductionist thinking - oversimplifying a complex
system.

14. Long’s 8 criteria for a theory of SLA
1
• Account for universals.
2 •Account for environmental factors.
3 •Account for variability in age, acquisition rate and proficiency level.
4 •Explain both cognitive and affective factors.
5 •Account for form-focused learning, not just subconscious acquisition.
6 •Account for other variables besides exposure and input.
7
•Account for cognitive/ innate factors which explain interlanguage
systematicity.
8
•Recognize that acquisition is not a steady accumulation of
generalizations.

15. Hot Topics in SLA Research
 Explicit and Implicit Learning
 Awareness
 Input and Output
 Frequency

16. Explicit and Implicit learning
 Explicit learning involves conscious awareness and attention.
 Implicit learning - learning without conscious attention or awareness.
Both explicit and implicit learning offer advantages and disadvantages.
 Related concepts: intentional and incidental learning.
 Central questions:
- Under what conditions, for which learners and for what linguistic
elements is one approach advantageous to SLA?
- How are we to measure (Ellis, 2004) explicit knowledge?
- Generalizations are not possible, all the specifics of a given context
should be considered before making a conclusion.

17. Awareness
Awareness is similar to conscious (vs. subconscious) learning, where learners are
intentionally controlling their attention and some aspects of input and output.
The noticing hypothesis (Schmidt’s, 1990) gives a central role to focal attention, stemming
from awareness, for a learner to notice language input. Noticing = an essential prerequisite
to a learner’s ability to convert input into intake.
 Input = the subset of all input that actually gets assigned to our long-term memory
store.
 Intake = what you take with you over a period of time and can later remember.
It seems advantageous that learners are aware of their own strengths and weaknesses and
to consciously employ strategic options in their learning
BUT
many learners are much too consciously involved in the forms of the target language  it
blocks their ability to focus on meaning.

18. Input and Output
 Input - the process of comprehending language
(listening and reading).
 Output - the production of language (speaking and
writing).

19. Frequency
 Frequency = how many times a specific word,
structure, or other defined element of language
captures the attention of a learner.
 Frequency may be more important than traditionally
thought.
 Frequency can potentially influence acquisition.

20. Krashen’s innatist model
 Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
 Monitor Hypothesis
 Natural Order Hypothesis
 Input Hypothesis
 Affective Filter Hypothesis
About the innatist theory
https://healthresearchfunding.org/innatist-theory-explained/

21. 1. Acquisition -Learning Hypothesis
Acquisition
• Subconscious & intuitive process of
constructing the system of language.
Learning
• Conscious learning process in which
learners attend to form, figure out
rules, aware of their own process.

22. 1. Acquisition - Learning Hypothesis (1)
Krashen (1981)
“Fluency in 2nd language
performance is due to what we
have acquired, not what we have
learned.”
• Adults should do as much
acquiring as possible in order
to achieve communicative
fluency; otherwise they will
get stuck in:
- rule learning
- too much conscious attention
to forms of language &
watching own progress.
Krashen (1982)
• Conscious learning
processes and subconscious
acquisition processes are
mutually exclusive:
Learning cannot become
acquisition
• “No interface” between
acquisition & learning is
used to strengthen the
argument;
- large doses of acquisition
activity in classroom
- minor role assigned to
learning

23. 2. Monitor Hypothesis (Krashen, 1981)
 The “Monitor” is involved in learning, not acquisition
 A device for “watchdogging” one’s output:
editing
making alterations, or
corrections (consciously perceived)
 Explicit and intentional learning are largely avoided, as it is
presumed to hinder acquisition.
 Once fluency is established, optimal amount of monitoring
or editing should be employed by learner.

24. 3. Natural Order Hypothesis
 We acquire language rules in a predictable or
‘natural’ order.

25. 4. Input Hypothesis
 Comprehensible input is the only true cause of 2nd
language acquisition.
 Important condition for language acquisition to
occur: the acquirer understands (via hearing/
reading) input language that contains structure a bit
beyond his/her current level of competence.
 Krashen’s recommendation: speaking should not be
taught directly or very early in language classroom.
Speech will emerge once acquirer has built enough
comprehensible input.

26. 5. Affective Filter Hypothesis
Environments where
anxiety is low,
defensiveness absent
= best acquisition

27. Evaluations of the 5 Hypothesis
Critique on the
distinction
between
subconcious
(acquisition) and
conscious
(learning process)
No interface, overlap
between acquisition
and learning.
• 2nd language learning is
a process in which
varying degrees of
learning and of
acquisition can both be
beneficial, depending
on one’s own styles and
strategies
• (Swain, 1998)
Implication that
the notion of i +1
is a novel idea;
reiteration of a
general principle
of learning that
has been
discussed.
• Ausubel’s terms
• Vygotsky’s ZPD

28. The Output Hypothesis (Seliger, 1983)
Input: information that gets assigned to out long-term memory store.
Intake: what you take with you over a period of time and can later
remember.
The output hypothesis: learners should actively engage themselves
in the creation of “comprehensible output” in order to develop
linguistically and cognitively.
- HIGH INPUT GENERATORS (HIGs) = people who are good at
initiating and sustaining interaction, or generating input from teachers, etc.
- LOW INPUT GENERATORS (LIGs) = passive learners who do less
efforts to get input directed toward them,
 Learners who maintained high levels of interaction in 2nd language,
progressed faster than learners who interacted little in classroom.

29. Major functions of output in SLA (Swain, 2005, 1995)
 Speech and writing can offer a means for learner to
reflect on language itself in interaction with peers.
 Output serves as a means to try out one’s language to
test various hypothesis that are forming.
 While attempting to produce target language, learners
may notice their erroneous attempts to convey
meaning

30. Cognitive Models
McLaughlin’s
Attention-
Processing Model Implicit and Explicit
Models

31. McLaughlin’s Attention-Processing Models
Attention to Formal
Properties of Language
INFORMATION PROCESSING
Controlled Automatic
Focal (Cell A)
Performance based on
formal rule learning
(Cell B)
Performance in a test
situation
Peripheral (Cell C)
Performance based on
implicit learning or
analogic learning
(Cell D)
Performance in
communication situations
Table 10.1. Possible 2nd language performance as a function of information-
processing procedures and attention to formal properties of language
(McLaughlin et al., 1983)

32. McLaughlin’s Attention-Processing Models
Controlled Processes: Typical process of
learning new skill, only few elements of
skill can be retained.
Automatic Processes: Processing more
accomplished skill, brain can manage a
lot of information simultaneously.
Characterized as fast, effortless,
unconscious and independent of the
amount of information being processed.
Segalowitz, 2003

33. McLaughlin’s Attention-Processing Models
CONTROLLED: New skill, capacity
limited
AUTOMATIC: Well trained,
practiced skill capacity is
relatively unlimited
Focal Intentional
Attention
A. Grammatical explanation of a specific
point
Word definition
Copy of a written model
The first stages of “memorizing” a dialog
Prefabricated patterns
Various discrete-point exercises
B. “Keeping an eye out” for
something
Advanced L2 learner focuses
on modals, formation, etc.
Monitoring oneself while
talking or writing
Scanning
Editing, peer-editing
Peripheral C. Simple greetings
The later stages of “memorizing” a dialog
TPR/Natural Approach
New L2 learner successfully completes a
brief conversation
D. Open-ended group work
Rapid reading, skimming
Free writes
Normal conversational
exchanges of some length
Table 10.2. Practical applications of McLaughlin’s attention-processing model
(Brown, 2007, p. 302)

34. Practical Applications of McLaughlin’s Attention-
Processing Model
 The cells are described in in terms of one’s processing of
and attention to language forms (grammatical,
phonological, discourse rules, etc.)
 If peripheral attention is given to language forms in a
more advanced language classroom, focal attention is
given to meaning, function, purpose or person.
 Child 2nd language learning may consist almost
exclusively of peripheral attention to language forms
(Cell C and D).
 Adult 2nd language learning involves movement from
Cell A through a combination of C and B, to D.
(DeKeyser, 1997).

35. Implicit and Explicit Models
 Explicit processing: one’s knowledge about language
 Implicit knowledge:
- information that is automatically and
spontaneously used in language tasks
- implicit processes enable learners to
perform language, but not necessarily to cite
rules governing the performance.
(Brown, 2007, p. 302)

36. Implicit and Explicit Models (2)
 Bialystok (1982) equated implicit and explicit with
synonymous terms; unanalyzed and analyzed
knowledge.
 Unanalyzed knowledge
 General form in which we know most things without
being aware of the structure of that knowledge.
 Learners have little awareness of language rules
 Analyzed knowledge
 Learners are overtly aware of the structure of analyzed
knowledge.
 Learners can verbalize complex rules governing language.

37. Model of Second Language Learning (Bialystok, 1978)
Figure 10.2. Model of 2nd language learning (adapted from Bialystok 1978, p. 71)
(Brown, 2007, p. 303)

38. Comprehension Check!
 What are the two terms used in the Output
Hypothesis proposed by Seliger (1983)?
 How many hypothesis are there in the Innatist
Model? Which are they?
 What are the ‘controlled processes’? And the
‘automatic processes’?

39. A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVIST MODEL: LONG’S
INTERACTION HYPOTHESIS
Two Preceding Theories
Krashen’s Input
Hypothesis
The Cognitive Model of 2nd
Language Acquisition
Focus to a considerable extent
on the learners

40. A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVIST MODEL: LONG’S INTERACTION
HYPOTHESIS
The social constructivist perspectives emphasize the
dynamic nature of the interplay between learners, their
peers and their teachers and others with whom they
interact.
The interaction between learners and others is the focus of
observation and explanation
Learners learn new forms in a language through the
negotiation around meaning that occurs when they engage
in communication and communication learning activities.

41. Modify Interaction (1)
 Interaction between native speakers
For example: babies imitate their parents:” the
cat fat”
Parents might correct: no we don’t say that. We
say: “the fat cat”
Our parents may modify their speech to children
Mommy go bye bye now”
 Interaction between native speakers with 2nd
language learners.

42. But native speakers often slow down speech to 2nd
language learners (modification also include
comprehension checks)
EX: “go down to the subway - do you know the
word subway?” and they explain the word “subway”
Or “I went to a new year’s Eve party,
You know, a night before the first day of a new
year.
Modify Interaction (2)

43. Modify Interaction (3)
In Longs view:
- Interaction and Input are two major players in the
process of acquisition.
- Conversation and other interactive communication
are the basic for the linguistic rules.
Further, Long’s hypothesis centers on the language
classroom seen
not only as a place where learners of varying abilities
and styles and background mingle,
but also as a place where the contexts for interaction
are carefully designed.

44. Theories and Models of SLA
INNATIST
(Krashen)
COGNITIVE
(McLaughlin / Bialystok)
CONSTRUCTIVIST
(Long)
 Subconscious
acquisition superior
to “learning” &
“monitoring”
 Comprehensible
input (i+1)
 Low affective filter
 Natural order of
acquisition
 “Zero option” for
grammar instruction
 Controlled /automatic
processing (McL)
 Focal / peripheral
attention (McL)
 Restructuring (McL)
 Implicit vs. explicit
(B)
 Unanalyzed vs.
analyzed knowledge
(B)
 Form-focused
instruction
 Interaction
hypothesis
 Intake through
social interaction
 Output hypothesis
(Swain)
 HIGS (Seliger)
 Authenticity
 Task-Based
instruction

45. From Theory to Practice
Theories are constructed by professors and researchers
who hypothesize, describe, measure and conclude
things about learners and learning and the teachers.
Researchers give many skills to teacher in: program
developing, textbook writing, observing, measuring
variables of acquisition applying technology to
teaching.

46. Practitioners
Practitioners are thought of as teachers who out
there in classroom every day stimulate, encourage,
observe and assess real learners.
A practitioner/teacher is made to feel that he/ she is
the recipient of a researcher/theorist's findings and
prognostications, with little to offer in return.

47. QUESTIONS
What is the interaction hypothesis of Michael Long?
What are cognitive models?
Who is a practitioner?
Source:
https://www.slideshare.net/nontv/chapter-10-toward-a-
theory-of-second-language-acquisition