The document is a science project on the topic of motion. It contains sections that define and describe different types of motion including: laws of motion, imperceptible human motions, motion of celestial bodies like the universe, galaxy, sun and solar system, earth, continents and internal human body parts. It also discusses motion at microscopic levels like cells, particles and subatomic particles. Other types of motion defined include harmonic motion, periodic motion, rectilinear motion, random motion, circular motion, rotational motion, oscillatory motion and projectile motion. The document was created by Bhumika Singh, a 9th grade science student.

1. Science Project
Title- MOTION

2. Contents
 Motion
 Laws OF Motion
 List of "imperceptible" human motions
 Light
 Types Of Motion
 Made By

3. Motion
In physics, motion is a change in position of an object with
respect to time. Motion is typically described in terms of
displacement, distance (scalar), velocity, acceleration, time and
speed.[1] Motion of a body is observed by attaching a frame of
reference to an observer and measuring the change in position of
the body relative to that frame.
If the position of a body is not changing with the time with
respect to a given frame of reference the body is said to be at rest,
motionless, immobile, stationary, or to have constant (time-
invariant) position. An object' s motion cannot change unless it
is actedpon by a force, as described by Newton's first law.
Momentum is a quantity which is used for measuring motion of
an object. An object's momentum is directly related to the
object's mass and velocity, and the total momentum of all
objects in an isolated system (one not affected by external
forces) does not change with time, as described by the law of
conservation of momentum.
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4. Laws Of Motion
In physics, motion is described through two sets of
apparently contradictory laws of mechanics. Motions of
all large scale and familiar objects in the universe (such as
projectiles, planets, cells, and humans) are described by
classical mechanics. Whereas the motion of very small
atomic and sub-atomic objects is described by quantum
mechanics.
o Classical Mechanics
o Quantum Mechanics
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5. Classical Mechanics
Classical mechanics is fundamentally based on Newton's laws of
motion. These laws describe the relationship between the forces
acting on a body and the motion of that body. They were first
compiled by Sir Isaac Newton in his work Philosophiae Naturalis
Principia Mathematica, first published on July 5, 1687. His three
laws are:
 A body either is at rest or moves with constant velocity, until and
unless an outer force is applied to it.
 An object will travel in one direction only until an outer force
changes its direction.
 Whenever one body exerts a force F onto a second body,(in some
cases, which is standing still) the second body exerts the force −F on
the first body. F and −F are equal in magnitude and opposite in
sense. So, the body which exerts F will go backwards.
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6. Quantum Mechanics
Quantum mechanics is a set of principles describing
physical reality at the atomic level of matter (molecules
and atoms) and the subatomic (electrons, protons, and
even smaller particles). These descriptions include the
simultaneous wave-like and particle-like behavior of both
matter and radiation energy, this is described in the wave–
particle duality. In classical mechanics, accurate
measurements and predictions of the state of objects can
be calculated, such as location and velocity. In the
quantum mechanics, due to the Heisenberg uncertainty
principle), the complete state of a subatomic particle, such
as its location and velocity, cannot be simultaneously
determined.
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7. List of "imperceptible" human
motions
Humans, like all known
things in the universe, are in
constant motion, however,
aside from obvious
movements of the various
external body parts and
locomotion, humans are in
motion in a variety of ways
which are more difficult to
perceive. Many of these
"imperceptible motions" are
only perceivable with the
help of special tools and
careful observation.
List
 Universe
 Galaxy
 Sun & Solar System
 Earth
 Continents
 Internal Body
 Cells
 Particles
 Subatomic Particles
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8. Universe
Spacetime (the fabric of the universe) is actually
expanding. Essentially, everything in the universe is
stretching like a rubber band. This motion is the most
obscure as it is not physical motion as such, but rather
a change in the very nature of the universe. The
primary source of verification of this expansion was
provided by Edwin Hubble who demonstrated that all
galaxies and distant astronomical objects were moving
away from us ("Hubble's law") as predicted by a
universal expansion.
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9. Galaxy
The Milky Way Galaxy, is moving through space. Many
astronomers believe the Milky Way is moving at
approximately 600 km/s relative to the observed
locations of other nearby galaxies. Another reference
frame is provided by the Cosmic microwave
background. This frame of reference indicates that The
Milky Way is moving at around 552 km/s.
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10. Sun & Solar System
The Milky Way is rotating around its dense galactic
center, thus the sun is moving in a circle within the
galaxy's gravity. Away from the central bulge or outer
rim, the typical stellar velocity is between 210 and
240 km/s.All planets and their moons move with the
sun. Thus the solar system is moving.
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11. Earth
The Earth is rotating or spinning around its axis, this is
evidenced by day and night, at the equator the earth
has an eastward velocity of 0.4651 km/s
(1040 mi/h).The Earth is orbiting around the Sun in an
orbital revolution. A complete orbit around the sun
takes one year or about 365 days; it averages a speed of
about 30 km/s (67,000 mi/h).

12. Continents
The Theory of Plate tectonics tells us that the
continents are drifting on convection currents within
the mantle causing them to move across the surface of
the planet at the slow speed of approximately 1 inch
(2.54 cm) per year. However, the velocities of plates
range widely. The fastest-moving plates are the oceanic
plates, with the Cocos Plate advancing at a rate of
75 mm/yr(3.0 in/yr) and the Pacific Plate moving 52–
69 mm/yr (2.1–2.7 in/yr). At the other extreme, the
slowest-moving plate is the Eurasian Plate, progressing
at a typical rate of about 21 mm/yr (0.8 in/yr).
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13. Internal Body
 The human heart is constantly contracting to move blood
throughout the body. Through larger veins and arteries in the body
blood has been found to travel at approximately 0.33 m/s. Though
considerable variation exists, and peak flows in the venae cavae
have been found between 0.1 m/s and 0.45 m/s.
 The smooth muscles of hollow internal organs are moving. The
most familiar would be peristalsis which is where digested food is
forced throughout the digestive tract. Though different foods travel
through the body at rates, an average speed through the human
small intestine is 2.16 m/h (0.036 m/s).
 Typically some sound is audible at any given moment, when the
vibration of these sound waves reaches the ear drum it moves in
response and allows the sense of hearing.
 The human lymphatic system is constantly moving excess fluids,
lipids, and immune system related products around the body. The
lymph fluid has been found to move through a lymph capillary of
the skin at approximately 0.0000097 m/s.
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14. Cells
The cells of the human body have many structures which
move throughout them.
 Cytoplasmic streaming is a way which cells move molecular
substances throughout the cytoplasm.
 Various motor proteins work as molecular motors within a
cell and move along the surface of various cellular
substrates such as microtubuless. Motor proteins are
typically powered by the hydrolysis of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP), and convert chemical energy into
mechanical work. Vesicles propelled by motor proteins
have been found to have a velocity of approximately
0.00000152 m/s.
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15. Particles
According to the laws of thermodynamics all particles
of matter are in constant random motion as long as the
temperature is above absolute zero. Thus the
molecules and atoms which make up the human body
are vibrating, colliding, and moving. This motion can
be detected as temperature; higher temperatures,
which represent greater kinetic energy in the particles,
feel warm to humans whom sense the thermal energy
transferring from the object being touched to their
nerves. Similarly, when lower temperature objects are
touched, the senses perceive the transfer of heat away
from the body as feeling cold.
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16. Subatomic Particles
 Within each atom, electrons exist in an area around the nucleus.
This area is called the electron cloud. According to Bohr's model of
the atom, electrons have a high velocity, and the larger the nucleus
they are orbiting the faster they would need to move. If electrons
'move' about the electron cloud in strict paths the same way planets
orbit the sun, then electrons would be required to do so at speeds
which far exceed the speed of light. However, there is no reason
that one must confine one's self to this strict conceptualization,
that electrons move in paths the same way macroscopic objects do.
Rather one can conceptualize electrons to be 'particles' that
capriciously exist within the bounds of the electron cloud.
 Inside the atomic nucleus the protons and neutrons are also
probably moving around due the electrical repulsion of the protons
and the presence of angular momentum of both particles.
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17. Light
Light propagates at 299,792,458 m/s, often approximated
as 300,000 kilometres per second or 186,000 miles per
second. The speed of light (or c) is also the speed of all
massless particles and associated fields in a vacuum, and
it is the upper limit on the speed at which energy, matter,
and information can travel. The speed of light is the limit
speed for physical systems.
In addition, the speed of light is an invariant quantity: it
has the same value, irrespective of the position or speed of
the observer. This property makes the speed of light c the
natural measurement unit for speed.
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18. Types Of Motion
 Harmonic Motion
 Periodic Motion
 Rectilinear Motion
 Random Motion
 Circular Motion
 Rotational Motion
 Oscillatory Motion
 Projectile Motion
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19. Harmonic Motion
In mechanics and physics, simple harmonic motion is a type
of periodic motion where the restoring force is directly
proportional to the displacement and acts in the direction
opposite to that of displacement. Simple harmonic motion can
serve as a mathematical model of a variety of motions, such as
the oscillation of a spring. In addition, other phenomena can
be approximated by simple harmonic motion, including the
motion of a simple pendulum as well as molecular vibration.
Simple harmonic motion is typified by the motion of a mass
on a spring when it is subject to the linear elastic restoring
force given by Hooke's Law.
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20. Periodic Motion
A periodic function is a function that repeats its values
in regular intervals or periods. The most important
examples are the trigonometric functions, which repeat
over intervals of 2π radians. Periodic functions are used
throughout science to describe oscillations, waves, and
other phenomena that exhibit periodicity. Any function
which is not periodic is called aperiodic.
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21. Rectilinear Motion
Linear motion (also called rectilinear motion) is a motion
along a straight line, and can therefore be described
mathematically using only one spatial dimension. The linear
motion can be of two types: uniform linear motion with constant
velocity or zero acceleration; non uniform linear motion with
variable velocity or non-zero acceleration. The motion of a particle
(a point-like object) along a line can be described by its position ,
which varies with (time). An example of linear motion is an
athlete running 100m along a straight track.
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22. Random Motion
Random motion, also known as Brownian motion, is the
chaotic, haphazard movement of atoms and molecules.
Random motion is a quality of liquid and especially gas
molecules as described by the kinetic theory. The botanist
Robert Brown first noticed this phenomenon in 1827, and
Albert Einstein later continued Brown’s study of the
movement of water and pollen molecules. His theory helped
to definitively prove the existence of atoms.
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23. Circular Motion
In physics, circular motion is a movement of an
object along the circumference of a circle or rotation
along a circular path. It can be uniform, with constant
angular rate of rotation and constant speed, or non-
uniform with a changing rate of rotation. The rotation
around a fixed axis of a three-dimensional body
involves circular motion of its parts. The equations of
motion describe the movement of the center of mass
of a body.
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24. Rotational
Motion
A rotation is a circular movement of an object around a
center (or point) of rotation. A three-dimensional object
always rotates around an imaginary line called a rotation
axis. If the axis passes through the body's center of mass,
the body is said to rotate upon itself, or spin. A rotation
about an external point, e.g. the Earth about the Sun, is
called a revolution or orbital revolution, typically when
it is produced by gravity.
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25. Oscillatory Motion
Oscillation is the repetitive variation, typically in
time, of some measure about a central value (often a
point of equilibrium) or between two or more different
states. The term 'vibration' is precisely used to describe
mechanical oscillation but used as a synonym of
'oscillation' too. Familiar examples include a swinging
pendulum and alternating current power.
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26. Projectile Motion
Projectile motion is a form of motion in which an
object or particle (called a projectile) is thrown near
the earth's surface, and it moves along a curved path
under the action of gravity only. The only force of
significance that acts on the object is gravity, which
acts downward to cause a downward acceleration.
There are no horizontal forces needed to maintain the
horizontal motion – consistent with the concept of
inertia.
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27. Made By-
Bhumika Singh
9th B
Subject- Science
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