The document discusses the psychological bases of the learning process, including Lev Vygotsky's theories of scaffolding and the zone of proximal development. It provides three key points: 1) Vygotsky believed learning is most effective in a social environment, where learners construct meaning through interaction with others. His zone of proximal development refers to what a learner can do with help versus independently. 2) Scaffolding refers to instructional techniques that help move students toward stronger understanding and independence, by controlling elements initially beyond their capabilities. It involves gradually reducing support as learners gain competence. 3) Effective scaffolding includes assessing learners' knowledge, relating new content to existing understanding, breaking tasks into manageable steps

1. PSYCHOLOGICAL
BASES OF THE
LEARNING
PROCESS

2. Prepared By:
LORELYN M. LADIANA

3. In construction, scaffolding refers to
a temporary structure on the outside
of a building, made usually of
wooden planks and metal poles,
used by workers while building,
repairing, or cleaning the building.
In education, scaffolding refers to a
variety of instructional techniques
used to move students progressively
toward stronger understanding and,
ultimately, greater independence in
the learning process.

4. LEV VYGOTSKY

6. "the distance between the actual developmental
level as determined by independent problem
solving and the level of potential development as
determined through problem-solving under adult
guidance, or in collaboration with more capable
peers" (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86).
The zone of proximal development (ZPD) has been defined as:

7. Vygotsky believed that a learner's
developmental level consisted of two parts:
the "actual developmental level" and the
"potential developmental level."
Vygotsky argued that we learn best in a
social environment, where we construct
meaning through interaction with others.
His Zone of Proximal
Development theory, where we can also
described as the difference between what a
learner can do independently and what can be
accomplished with the help of a "more
knowledgeable other."

8. MORE KNOWLEDGEABLE OTHER (MKO)
Someone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner,
with respect to a particular task, process, or concept.
An adult or a peer who shares knowledge with the learner to bridge the gap
between what is known and what is not known.
Although the implication is that the MKO is a teacher or an older adult, this is not
necessarily the case. Many times, a child's peers or an adult's children may be the
individuals with more knowledge or experience.

9. A contemporary application of
Vygotsky's theories is "reciprocal
teaching," used to improve students' ability
to learn from text. In this method, teacher
and students collaborate in learning and
practicing four key skills: summarizing,
questioning, clarifying, and predicting. The
teacher's role in the process is reduced
over time.
Vygotsky's theories also feed
into current interest in collaborative
learning, suggesting that group
members should have different
levels of ability so more advanced
peers can help less advanced
members operate within their zone
of proximal development.

10. JEROME BRUNER, DAVID WOOD, AND GAIL ROSS

11. Wood et al. (1976) define scaffolding as a process "that enables a child or
novice to solve a task or achieve a goal that would be beyond his unassisted
efforts." According to them, scaffolds require the adult's "controlling those
elements of the task that are initially beyond the learner's capability, thus
permitting him to concentrate upon and complete only those elements that are
within his range of competence".

12. OTHER PROPONENTS OF SCAFFOLDING
Copple & Bredekamp, (2009)
Scaffolding is a key feature of effective
teaching, where the adult continually
adjusts the level of his or her help in
response to the learner's level of
performance. In the classroom, scaffolding
can include modeling a skill, providing
hints or cues, and adapting material or
activity.

13. Dixon, Carnine, and Kameenui
(1993)
Effective scaffolds must be
"gradually dismantled" in
order to remain effective (p.
100). However, if scaffolds are
dismantled too quickly,
learning does not occur, and
the learner becomes
in the process.
OTHER PROPONENTS OF SCAFFOLDING

14. Greenfield (1999),
Scaffolding is actually a bridge used to
build upon what students already know
to arrive at something they do not
If scaffolding is properly administered, it
will act as an enabler, not as a disabler"
(Benson, 1997, p. 126).
OTHER PROPONENTS OF SCAFFOLDING

15. CHARACTERISTICS OF SCAFFOLDING
Contingency
The decision making
process involved in
gradual ‘handing-
of responsibility from
the teacher to the
learners.
Temporary
Support is reduced
and removed as the
learner gains
competence and able
to answer and solve
problems on their
own.
Transfer of
Responsibility
Responsibility for
successful
performance is
gradually transferred
from the support
provider to the

16. TYPES OF THE SCAFFOLDING
Content Scaffolding
Task Scaffolding
Material Scaffolding

17. Content Scaffolding
One type of instructional scaffolding is
to as content scaffolding. For this type of
scaffolding, the teacher selects content that is
not too difficult or unfamiliar for students
learning a new skill. Doing so allows students to
focus on the skill being taught and not get
bogged down in the content.
Use Familiar or Highly
Interesting Content
Use Easy Content
Start With the Easy

18. Task Scaffolding
Another type of instructional scaffolding is referred to
as task scaffolding. In this type of scaffolding, a teacher
begins by specifying the steps in a task or instructional
strategy. He or she then models the steps in the task,
verbalizing his or her thought processes for the
students.
Lesson 1
Mrs. Gardner:
Names the strategy
step
Describes the step
Models its use
Lesson 2
The students:
Name the step
Mrs. Gardner:
Describes the step
Models its use
Lesson 3
The students:
Name the step
Describe the step
Mrs. Gardner:
Models its use
Lesson 4
The students:
Name the strategy
step
Describe the step
Model its use

19. Material Scaffolding
Material scaffolding involves the use of
written prompts or cues to help the students
perform a task or use a strategy. This may take
the form of cue sheets or guided examples that
list the steps necessary to perform a task.
Students can use these as a reference, to
reduce confusion and frustration

20. GUIDELINES FOR
EFFECTIVE
SCAFFOLDING

21. WOOD ET AL. (1976)
NAMED CERTAIN
PROCESSES THAT AID
EFFECTIVE SCAFFOLDING:
 Gaining and maintaining
the learner’s interest in the
task.
 Making the task simple.
 Emphasizing certain
aspects that will help with
the solution.
 Control the child’s level of
frustration.
 Demonstrate the task.

22. WOOD AND MIDDLETON (1975) OBSERVED HOW
MOTHERS INTERACTED WITH THEIR CHILDREN TO
BUILD THE 3D MODEL. THE TYPE OF SUPPORT
INCLUDED:
 General encouragement e.g., ‘now
you have a go.’
 Specific instructions e.g., ‘get four
big blocks.’
 Direct demonstration, e.g., showing
the child how to place one block on
another.

23. SILVER’S (2011) GUIDELINES FOR SCAFFOLDING
INSTRUCTION.
 Assess the learner's current knowledge and
experience for the academic content.
 Relate content to what students already
understand or can do.
 Break a task into small, more manageable tasks
with opportunities for intermittent feedback.
 Use verbal cues and prompts to assist students.

24. LEVELS OF UNDERSTANDING
Again, we find these guidelines helpful in
planning good instruction, but they're still fairly
general. Here's another general idea worth
remembering: the intent of the scaffold, or guided
instruction, is to create situations that build
students' knowledge so that they can apply,
evaluate, and create—those elusive critical
thinking skills first described by Benjamin Bloom in
1956 and updated by Anderson and Krathwohl in
2001 to reflect the kinds of learning we think
about today.

25. Intersubjectivity.
The first component necessary for
instructional scaffolds to be effective
involves the joint ownership of the task
between the students and teacher. This
requires that the task be defined and
redefined by the students and teacher such
that the students begin to understand the
task from the perspective of the more
knowledgeable other.
Ongoing diagnosis.
the teacher must be continually aware of
what the learner understands and still needs
to learn. This requires a deep understanding
of the task at hand, including the subtasks
required for mastery, and a keen level of
knowledge about the individual learner.
PUNTAMBEKAR AND HÜBSCHER
(2005) TOOK A DIFFERENT TACK
IN THEIR ANALYSIS OF THE KEY
FEATURES OF INSTRUCTIONAL
SCAFFOLDS.

26. Dialogic and interactive.
A third feature of learning scaffolds relates
to the conversation that the students and
teacher have as part of the learning situation.
This is not a time for a monologue, but rather
a dialogue in which the teacher monitors
student understanding and progress.
Fading.
The final theoretical feature requires that
the teacher fade the support provided to the
learners. Without fading, this process of
internalization cannot happen; students
become "prompt-dependent," not
independent..
PUNTAMBEKAR AND HÜBSCHER
(2005) TOOK A DIFFERENT TACK
IN THEIR ANALYSIS OF THE KEY
FEATURES OF INSTRUCTIONAL
SCAFFOLDS.

27. Thank You For
Listening!