3. Constructivism: What is it?
• A theory that emphasizes active
learning, such as:
- Group activities
- Constructing knowledge rather
than acquiring it.
- Debates
- Reflecting on experiences
- Socialization
4. What is it? (continued)
• Learners must individually discover and
transform complex information.
• Constructivism posit general concepts of
individuality, such as :
- learners construct knowledge
based off of past experiences.
- each learner has a unique
interpretation and construction of
knowledge processes.
5. What is it? (continued)
• Constructivism is the idea that learning
DOES NOT just happen by the
traditional methods of teachers
standing in front of the class and
lecturing.
6. What is it? (continued)
CONFUCIUS AND CONSTRUCTIVISM
• It is best described by Confucius’
quotes:
“ I hear and I forget. I see and I
remember. I do and I understand.”
7. What is it? (continued)
• Another saying on Constructivism
You can give students ladders that lead to
higher understanding, but the students
themselves must climb these ladders –
(Guskey & Anderman, 2008)
9. CONSTRUCTIVSM: WHO MADE IT?
• JOHN DEWEY
Emphasized the significance of
experience in education.
• PIAGET
Demonstrated that children’s minds
were not empty, but were constantly
processing the material they were
presented.
10. CONSTRUCTIVSM: WHO MADE IT?
• PIAGET’S 4 CONGNITIVE STAGES
• SENSORIMOTOR
learning takes place primarily through the
child’s senses and motor actions
• PREOPERATIONAL
Children begin to use symbols and images
• CONCRETE OPERATIONAL
Children begin to think logically
• FORMAL OPERATIONAL
Children begin to think in an abstract way
11. CONSTRUCTIVSM: WHO MADE IT?
• LEV VYGOTSKY
Most significant theorists for social
constructivism
Known for his theory of the “Zone of Proximal
Development.”
Observed that children rarely did as well when
performing alone than they did when working
collaboratively with an adult
Believe that the development of language and
articulation of ideas was essential for learning
and development.
12. Instructional Ideas Derived From
Piaget and Vygotsky
• Social Nature of Learning
• Zone of Proximal Development
• Cognitive Apprenticeship
• Mediated Learning
• Cooperative Learning
• Self-Regulated Learning
• Scaffolding
13. Social Nature of Learning
Child learn through joint interactions
with adults and more capable peers.
Successful problem solvers talk
themselves through difficult problems
(Self Talk) – Vygotsky
Cooperative groups – children can hear
this inner speech out loud and learn
how successful problem solvers are
thinking through their approaches.
14.
15. ZPD Example
Subject : Maria
He examines her preparation and swing.
- He notices that her stance is perfect, she prepares early, she turns her
torso appropriately, and she hits the ball at precisely the right height.
- However she is still gripping her racquet the same way she hits her
backhand, so he shows her how to reposition her hand to hit a proper
forehand, stressing she should keep her index finger parallel to the
racquet.
- He models a good forehand for her, and then assists her in changing
her grip. With little practice, Maria’s forehand turns into a formidable
weapon for her!
In this case, Maria was in the ZPD for successfully hitting a forehand shot.
- She was doing everything else correctly, but just needed a little
coaching and scaffolding form “MKO” to help her succeed in the task.
- When that assistance was given, she became able to achieve her goal.
16. ZPD EXAMPLE No:2
• James have never learned – game card UNO
• James knows his brother plays it very well.
• James would like to learn, but is unsure where to start.
• James finally asks his brother Ali to help. Ali agrees and begins
working with James in learning the game UNO.
• James is learning in the region Vygotsky would call ZPD.
• In ZPD, James is doing something requiring the help of someone
more capable. Without Ali’s help, James would be unable to play
the game.
• Eventually, James will learn the game well enough to play the
game by himself
• Once James learns UNO, the skill move out of the ZPD region and
is added to all the other games James plays independently.
• In time, James becomes the more capable player, and begins to
teach his sister.
17. Cognitive Apprenticeship
• The process by which a learner gradually
acquires expertise through interaction
with an expert, either and adult or an
older or more advanced peer.
• In many occupations, new workers learn
their jobs through a process of
apprenticeship in which they work closely
with experts who provide models, give
feedback to less experienced workers, and
gradually socialize new workers into the
norms and behaviors of the profession.
18. Cooperative Learning
• Instructional approaches in which students work in
small mixed-ability groups.
Research On Cooperative Learning
Based on 2 types
1. Group Study
2. Project Based Learning/ Active Learning
Findings of achievement were +ve on achievement if:
i. Recognition and individual accountability were
utilized
ii. Groups HAD goals
iii. Participants were taught group process skills,
communication skills and metacognitive
strategies
19. 21st Century Learning:
Cooperative Learning
• Help students develop the following
important skills:
1. Teamwork
2. Ability to solve problems
3. Learning in Groups
4. Social Skills / communicating skills
5. Critical thinking
20. Self – Regulated Learning
Self regulated learners:
students who have knowledge of effective
learning strategies and how and when to use
them.
Learners knows how to: -
• break complex problems into simpler steps or
to test out alternative solutions
• And when to skim and how and when to read
for deeper understanding
• Write to persuade and how to write to inform
Learners are Motivated by :
- Learning itself NOT by grades or other’s approval
21. Mediated Learning & Scaffolding
• Assisted learning; and approach in which the teacher guides
instructions to help students master and internalized the
skills that permit higher cognitive functioning
Example
Jason: I can’t get this one in. (tries to insert a piece in the wrong place)
Adult: Which piece might go down here? (points to the bottom of the
puzzle)
Jason: His shoes. (Looks for a piece resembling the clown’s shoes but
tries the wrong one)
Adult: Well, what piece looks like this shape? (points again to the bottom
of the puzzle)
Jason: The brown one. (Tries it and it fits; then attempts another piece
and looks at the adult)
Adult: There you have it! Now try turning that piece just a little, (gestures
to show him)
Jason: There! (Puts in several more, commenting to himself, “Now a
green piece to match,” “turn it [meaning the puzzle piece], “ as the
adult watches)
22. Constructivism Methods
• Top Down Processing
• Discovery Learning
• Reciprocal Teaching in the Content
Areas (reading)
23. Top down Processing
• Constructivist approaches to teaching
emphasize on TOP-DOWN
• Top down : students begin with complex
problems to solve and then work out or
discover (with your guidance) the basic skills
required.
Example:
• students might be asked to write compositions
and only later learn about spelling, grammar
and pronunciation.
• Student might be asked to talk about the story
they have just read (with your guidance) then
only learn about the elements of a plot.
24. Discovery Learning
• A constructivists approach to teaching in which
students are encouraged to discover principles
for themselves.
Example : science class
Teacher give a series of cylinders of different
sizes and weight, some hollow and some solid.
Students are encouraged to race the cylinders
down a ramp. By careful experimentation the
students can discover the underlying principles
that determine the cylinders’ speed.
• Guided Discovery allows the teacher to assist
learner in Focusing their work.
25. Reciprocal Teaching in the
Content Areas (Reading)
• Reciprocal Teaching
A small group teaching method based on
principles of question generation; through
instruction and modelling, teachers foster
metacognitive skills primarily to improve
the reading performance of students who
have poor comprehension.
• Teacher as facilitator
• Top down processing
26. Reciprocal Teaching in the Content Areas
(Reading)
Teacher: The title of this story is “Genius with Feathers.”
let’s make some predictions. I will begin by guessing
that this story will be about birds that are very smart.
Why do I say that?
Student 1: Because a genius is someone very smart.
Student 2: Because they have feathers.
Teacher: That’s right. Birds are the only animals that
have feathers. Let’s predict now the kind of information
you might read about very smart birds.
Student 3: What kinds of birds?
Teacher: Good question. What kinds would you guess
are very smart?
Student 3: Parrots or Blue Jays
Student 1: A Cockatoo.
Teacher: What other information would you want to
know?[No response from students]
Teacher: I would like to know what these birds do that
is so smart. Any ideas?
Student 2: Some bird talk.
Student 4: They can fly.
Teacher: That’s an interesting one. As smart as people
are, they can’t fly. Well, let’s read this first section now
and see how many of our predictions were right. I will
be the teacher for tis section. [all read the section
silently.]
Teacher: Who is the genius with feathers?
Student 1: Crows.
Teacher: That’s right. We were correct in our prediction that this
story would be about birds, but we didn’t correctly guess which
kind of bird, did we? My summary of the first section would be
that it describes the clever things that crows do, which make
them seem quite intelligent. Let’s read on. Who will be the
teacher for this section? Jim?
Jim: How do crows communicate with one another?
Teacher: Good question! You picked right up on our prediction
that this is about the way crows communicate. Whom do you
choose to answer your question?
Jim: Barbara.
Barbara: Crows have built in radar and a relay system.
Jim: That’s a good part of it. The answer I wanted was how they
relay the message from one crow to another crow.
Teacher: Summarize now.
Jim: This is about how crow have developed a system of
communication.
Techer: That’s right. The paragraph goes on to give examples of
how they use pitch and changes in interval, but these are
supporting details. The main ideas is that crows communicate
through a relay system, Jim?
Jim: It says in this section that crows can use their
communication system to play tricks, so I predict the next
section will say something about the tricks crow play. I would
like sue to be the next teacher.
Teacher: Excellent prediction. The last sentence of a paragraph
often suggests what the next paragraph will be about. Good Jim
27. HOW ARE PROBLEM SOLVING &
THINKING SKILLS TAUGHT
THE PROBLEM SOLVING PROCESS
IDEAL MODEL
I – Identify problems and opportunities
D – Define goals and represent the problem
E – Explore possible strategies
A – Anticipate outcome and act
L – Look back and learn
28. Teaching Creative Problem
Solving
1. Incubation
o pause and reflect
2. Suspension of Judgement
o Consider all possibilities before identifying a solution –
brainstorming
3. Appropriate Climates
o Playful environment where all answers are accepted
4. Analysis
o Analyze important elements of the problem
5. Engaging Problems
o Provide problems that intrigue and engage students
6. Feedback
o Practice with feedback on correctness and process by which
they arrived at the solutions.
29. Teaching Thinking Skills
• Instrumental Enrichment
A thinking skills program in which a students work through a
series of paper- and- pencil exercises that are designed to
develop various intellectual abilities
• Incorporate them in daily lesson and classroom
experiences to create a culture of thinking.
• 4 step process :
a. State
b. Search
c. Evaluate
d. Elaborate and make a plan
30. Critical Thinking
• Definition: The ability to make rational
decisions about what to do/believe.
• Requires practice: dilemmas, simulations,
arguments & advertisement
• Classroom tone of acceptance of divergent
perspectives & free discussion
• Utilize topics familiar to students.
• Create critical spirit – examine own
thinking for inconsistencies.
31. Critical Thinking Skills - Beyer
1. Distinguishing between verifiable facts and values
claims
2. Distinguishing relevant from irrelevant info, claims,
or reasons.
3. Determining the factual accuracy of a statement
4. Determining the credibility of a source
5. Identifying ambiguous claims or arguments
6. Identifying unstated assumptions
7. Detecting bias
8. Identifying logical fallacies
9. Recognizing logical inconsistencies in a line of
reasoning
10. Determining the strength of an argument or claim.
32. CONSTRUCTIVISM:HOW IS IT USED?
• TEACHERS:
Are meant to be facilitators, not teachers.
Facilitators for the learner to construct
his/her own conclusions.
Instructors make use of group work
instructors might utilize the internet to
research current events.
Instructors could assign collaborative
research projects and PowerPoint
presentations.
33. CONSTRUCTIVISM:HOW IS IT
USED?
• STUDENTS
Learners should be active in classroom
discussions.
They could reflect on the material with
one another.
They could relate the lesson to a past
experience.
They could utilize the internet to research
connections between the material and
current events.
34. Putting It All Together
Learning Theory Learning Process Technology Support
Behaviorism
Through positive/
negative
reinforcement and
punishment
Educational software
can be used to
measure the students
assessment
Cognitivism
Rehearsing
information and then
storing it for long term
use
Flashcards and
memory games can
help retain information
taught in a lesson
Constructivism
Constructing ones
own knowledge
through past
experiences and
group collaboration
Group PowerPoint
projects allow students
to work together and
combine their
knowledge to learn
35. Small Discussion
(4 to 5 in a group)
• Recall your experience (practicum/
micro-teaching) did you use
constructivism method in your lesson?
- Yes or No?
- Yes : provide examples and how do you
find it?
- No: How will you include constructivism
in your lesson and what is the
significance of it.
