Non-Typhoidal Salmonellosis is caused by the bacteria Salmonella, which is found worldwide in animals and can be transmitted to humans through contaminated food or direct contact with infected animals. The document discusses the history, epidemiology, transmission, symptoms and treatment of Salmonella infection in humans. Key points are that infants and children are most vulnerable, symptoms range from mild gastroenteritis to severe enteric fever, and prevention focuses on proper food handling and handwashing after contact with animals.
Leptospirosis is a worldwide public health problem. In humid tropical and subtropical areas, where most developing
countries are found, it is a greater problem than in those with a temperate climate. The magnitude of the problem in
tropical and subtropical regions can be largely attributed to climatic and environmental conditions but also to the
great likelihood of contact with a Leptospira-contaminated environment caused by, for example, local agricultural
practices and poor housing and waste disposal, all of which give rise to many sources of infection. In countries with
temperate climates, in addition to locally acquired leptospirosis, the disease may also be acquired by travellers
abroad, and particularly by those visiting the tropics.
Leptospirosis is a potentially serious but treatable disease. Its symptoms may mimic those of a number of other
unrelated infections such as influenza, meningitis, hepatitis, dengue or viral haemorrhagic fevers. Some of these
infections, in particular dengue, may give rise to large epidemics, and cases of leptospirosis that occur during such
epidemics may be overlooked. For this reason, it is important to distinguish leptospirosis from dengue and viral
haemorrhagic fevers, etc. in patients acquiring infections in countries where these diseases are endemic. At present,
this is still difficult, but new developments may reduce the technical problems in the near future. It is necessary,
therefore, to increase awareness and knowledge of leptospirosis as a public health threat.
Leptospirosis is a worldwide public health problem. In humid tropical and subtropical areas, where most developing
countries are found, it is a greater problem than in those with a temperate climate. The magnitude of the problem in
tropical and subtropical regions can be largely attributed to climatic and environmental conditions but also to the
great likelihood of contact with a Leptospira-contaminated environment caused by, for example, local agricultural
practices and poor housing and waste disposal, all of which give rise to many sources of infection. In countries with
temperate climates, in addition to locally acquired leptospirosis, the disease may also be acquired by travellers
abroad, and particularly by those visiting the tropics.
Leptospirosis is a potentially serious but treatable disease. Its symptoms may mimic those of a number of other
unrelated infections such as influenza, meningitis, hepatitis, dengue or viral haemorrhagic fevers. Some of these
infections, in particular dengue, may give rise to large epidemics, and cases of leptospirosis that occur during such
epidemics may be overlooked. For this reason, it is important to distinguish leptospirosis from dengue and viral
haemorrhagic fevers, etc. in patients acquiring infections in countries where these diseases are endemic. At present,
this is still difficult, but new developments may reduce the technical problems in the near future. It is necessary,
therefore, to increase awareness and knowledge of leptospirosis as a public health threat.
local names, definition, etiology,epidemiology lifecycle, pathogenesis, clinical findings, necropsy finding, diagnosis,treatment, control and prevention
local names, definition, etiology,epidemiology lifecycle, pathogenesis, clinical findings, necropsy finding, diagnosis,treatment, control and prevention
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
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Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
3. Salmonellosis
• Gram negative,
facultative rod
• Two species
– S. bongori
– S. enterica
• Six subspecies
• More than 2500 known serovars
– Many zoonotic (non-typhoidal)
Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State University, 2011
4. History
• First isolated in 1884
– S. choleraesuis in pig intestine
• Prevalence in the U.S.
– 1980: 30,000
– 1986: 42,028
– 1998-2002: 128, 370
• Estimated 1.4 million cases/year
– Only 40,000 culture-confirmed
Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State University, 2011
5. Epidemiology
Infants and young children are at
highest risk for the disease, although
nontyphoidal Salmonella are a
frequent cause of gastroenteritis
among adults .
6. Geographic Distribution
• Worldwide
– Related to animal husbandry
– Wild reservoirs
• Serovar distribution varies
– Some geographically limited
• Eradication programs in some
countries
– Sweden
Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State University, 2011
7. U.S. Serotypes, 2009
• Enteritidis
• Typhimurium
• Newport
• Javiana
• Heidelberg
• Montevideo
• 14,[5],12.i:-
• Muenchen
Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State University, 2011
FoodNet
9. Human Transmission
• Fecal-oral: direct or indirect
• Commonly contaminated items
– Meat, eggs, water
• Fecal material from:
– *Reptiles
– *Chicks
– *Ducklings
– Livestock, dogs, cats, adult poultry
Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State University, 2011
10. Disease in childrens
• Incubation period:
– Gastroenteritis: 12 hrs to 3 days
– Enteric fever: 10 to 14 days
• Asymptomatic to severe
• All serovars can
produce all forms
– Reptile-associated is
most severe
Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State University, 2011
11. Clinical Sign: Gastroenteritis
• Nausea, vomiting, cramping
abdominal pain and diarrhea
(may be bloody)
• Headache, fever, chills, myalgia
• Severe dehydration: infants, elderly
• Symptoms resolve in 1 to 7 days
• Sequela: Reiter’s syndrome
Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State University, 2011
12. Clinical Signs: Enteric Fever
• Systemic salmonellosis
• Caused by S. typhi or other species
• Clinical signs
– Non-specific
– Gastrointestinal disease
– Fever, anorexia, headache, lethargy,
myalgias, constipation
• Can be fatal: meningitis, septicemia
Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State University, 2011
13. Diagnosis
• Isolate organism from feces or blood
• Grows on wide
variety of media
– Enrichment
• Biochemical tests
– Antigens
– Phage typing
• PCR
Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State University, 2011
14. Treatment
• Antibiotics
– Ampicillin, amoxicillin, gentamicin,
fluoroquinolones
• Treatment indications
– Septicemia, enteric fever
– Elderly, infants, immunosuppressed
• Healthy persons recover 2 to 7 days
without antibiotics
Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State University, 2011
16. Salmonella vaccine
• Between 1904-1914, the vaccine had become
respectable, in the scientific as well as military
world.
• Vaccine was successfully used during World
War I to reduce the number of soldiers who
died of enteric fever (S. typhi).
Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State University, 2011
17. Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State University, 2011
18. Prevention
• Food-borne diseases
– Avoid raw or undercooked eggs, poultry,
meat; unpasteurized milk/dairy
– Wash foods before eating
– Avoid cross-contamination of food
• Keep uncooked and cooked foods
• Wash hands and kitchen tools
– Do not feed infants or change diapers
while handling food
Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State University, 2011
19. Prevention
• Animal contact
– Wash hands after contact
– If immunocompromised, avoid contact
with reptiles, young chicks, ducklings
– Reptiles
• Children under 10 years of age
• Wash hands, cages, and surfaces
• Change clothes
• Supervision
• Do not allow reptiles to roam freely
Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State University, 2011
20. Additional Resources
• U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)
–www.aphis.usda.gov
• Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC)
–http://www.cdc.gov/salmonella/
• Center for Food Security and Public Health
–www.cfsph.iastate.edu
Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State University, 2011
21. Didi madloba
•Thanks for attention
Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State University, 2011
Editor's Notes
In today’s presentation, we will cover information regarding the organism that causes non-typhoidal salmonellosis and its epidemiology. We will also talk about the history of the disease, how it is transmitted, species that it affects and clinical and necropsy signs observed. Finally, we will address prevention and control measures for non-typhoidal salmonellosis.
[Photo: Cow. USDA ARS, Peggy Greb]
Salmonella spp. are members of the family Enterobacteriaceae. They are Gram negative, facultatively anaerobic rods. The genus Salmonella contains two species, S. enterica, the type species, and S. bongori. S. enterica. contains six subspecies: S. enterica subsp. enterica, S. enterica subsp. salamae, S. enterica subsp. arizonae, S. enterica subsp. diarizonae, S. enterica subsp. houtenae and S. enterica subsp. indica. Within each subspecies are serovars; over 2500 serovars are presently known. Most of the isolates that cause disease in humans and other mammals belong to S. enterica subsp. enterica. A few serovars, Salmonella ser. Typhi, Salmonella ser. Paratyphi and Salmonella ser. Hirschfeldii are human pathogens that are transmitted from human to human. The remaining Salmonella serovars, sometimes referred to as non-typhoidal Salmonella, are zoonotic or potentially zoonotic.
[Photo: Salmonella spp. CDC Public Health Image Library]
Salmonella was first discovered in 1884 by Dr. DE Salmon; he isolated the bacterium (S. choleraesuis) from the intestine of a pig. By 1980, more than 30,000 people were reported to be infected with Salmonella in the United States. This number increased to 42,028 by 1986. From 1998-2002, the CDC reported 128,370 cases. An estimated 1.4 million cases occur annually in the U.S., although only about 40,000 are culture-confirmed and reported to CDC.
Salmonellosis can be found worldwide but seems to be most common where intensive animal husbandry is practiced. Reservoirs also remain in wild animals. Some Salmonella are geographically limited. Salmonella eradication programs have nearly eradicated the disease in domestic animals and humans in some countries (e.g., Sweden).
The Foodborne Diseases Active Surveillance Network (FoodNet) is the principal foodborne disease component of CDC's Emerging Infections Program (EIP). The project consists of active surveillance for foodborne diseases and related epidemiologic studies designed to help public health officials better understand the epidemiology of foodborne diseases in the United States. States in yellow (figure, above) participate in FoodNet. In 2009, the most common Salmonella serotypes isolated from FoodNet were: Enteritidis, Typhimurium, Newport, Javiana, Heidelberg, Montevideo,14,[5],12.i:-, and Muenchen.
Image: States participating in FoodNet. CDC.
People are often infected when they eat contaminated foods of animal origin such as meat or eggs. They can also be infected by ingesting organisms in animal feces, either directly or in contaminated food or water. Directly transmitted human infections are most often acquired from the feces of reptiles, chicks and ducklings. Livestock, dogs, cats, adult poultry and cage birds can also be involved.
In humans, salmonellosis varies from a self-limiting gastroenteritis to septicemia. Whether the organism remains in the intestine or disseminates depends on host factors as well as the virulence of the strain. Asymptomatic infections can also be seen. All serovars can produce all forms of salmonellosis, although a given serotype is often associated with a specific syndrome (e.g. Salmonella choleraesuis tends to cause septicemia). Salmonellosis acquired from reptiles is often severe, and may be fatal due to septicemia or meningitis. Most cases of reptile-associated salmonellosis are seen in children under 10 and people who are immunocompromised.
[Photo: Boy holding turtle. CDC, James Ganthany]
Gastroenteritis is characterized by nausea, vomiting, cramping abdominal pain and diarrhea, which may be bloody. Headache, fever, chills and myalgia may also be seen. Severe dehydration can occur in infants and the elderly. In many cases, the symptoms resolve spontaneously in 1 to 7 days. Deaths are rare except in very young, very old, debilitated or immunocompromised persons. Reiter's syndrome may be a sequela in some cases of gastroenteritis. This syndrome is characterized by mild to severe arthritis, nonbacterial urethritis or cervicitis, conjunctivitis and small, painless, superficial mucocutaneous ulcers. Reiter’s syndrome occurs in approximately 2% of cases of salmonellosis.
Salmonellosis can be confirmed by isolating the organisms from feces or, in cases of disseminated disease, from the blood. Salmonella will grow on a wide variety of selective and non-selective media. Enrichment broths can increase the probability of isolating the organism. Salmonella spp. are identified with biochemical tests, and the serovar can be identified using serology for the somatic (O), flagellar (H) and capsular (Vi) antigens. PCR and other genetic techniques may also be available.
[Photo: Salmonella colonies. Dr. Danelle Bickett-Weddle, CFPSH]
