Presentation on Organ & Mechanism of Respiration in Pisces And Amphibiansvskgondia
This is Powerpoint presentation helpful for students and teachers. It includes Defination of Respiration & Function of respiratory system. Also contains mechanism of respiration and various repiratory organs of pisces and amphibians, their structures and fuctions.
INTRODUCTION
The term urogenital refers to something that has both urinary and genital origins. The word urogenital is used because the urinary and reproductive systems in males merge.
These are grouped together because of their proximity to each other, their common embryological origin and the use of common pathways (ex. urethra).
Kidneys and urinary ducts form the urinary system.
The Urinary system performs two important homeostatic processes like excretion and osmoregulation. This system is intimately associated both anatomically, and in terms of embryonic origin with the genital system.
The genital system includes the gonads which generate gametes and the genital ducts that serve as passages for the gametes.
Though functionally different the two organ systems the urinary and the genital system are treated together as the urino- genital system, since both develop from the same segmental blocks of trunk mesoderm or adjacent tissues and share many of the ducts.
Thus although the two systems have nothing common functionally they are closely associated in their use of common ducts and are studied under the broad heading of urinogenital system.
The function of the excretory system is crucial in considering the possible environment of the ‘vertebrate life ’. Several main functions can be attributed to all vertebrate excretory systems:
Excretion of nitrogenous waste products.
Maintaining homeostasis with regard to ions (i.e. salt balance).
Regaining valuable substances (glucose, salts, amino acids, etc.)
Maintaining a physiological osmotic value (i.e. water balance).
The excretory system is formed by a series of paired, segmental nephrons that begin with a nephrostome opening into the coelomic cavity.
A pair of glomeruli per segment, supplied by branches from the aorta, projects into the coelomic cavity close to these nephrostomes.
At a later stage of development, the glomerulus/nephrostome area becomes separated from the rest of the coelomic cavity by an epithelial fold.
The nephrons connect to a duct that is formed by caudal growth of the most anterior nephric tubules. These paired urinary ducts open near the anal region.
Presentation on Organ & Mechanism of Respiration in Pisces And Amphibiansvskgondia
This is Powerpoint presentation helpful for students and teachers. It includes Defination of Respiration & Function of respiratory system. Also contains mechanism of respiration and various repiratory organs of pisces and amphibians, their structures and fuctions.
INTRODUCTION
The term urogenital refers to something that has both urinary and genital origins. The word urogenital is used because the urinary and reproductive systems in males merge.
These are grouped together because of their proximity to each other, their common embryological origin and the use of common pathways (ex. urethra).
Kidneys and urinary ducts form the urinary system.
The Urinary system performs two important homeostatic processes like excretion and osmoregulation. This system is intimately associated both anatomically, and in terms of embryonic origin with the genital system.
The genital system includes the gonads which generate gametes and the genital ducts that serve as passages for the gametes.
Though functionally different the two organ systems the urinary and the genital system are treated together as the urino- genital system, since both develop from the same segmental blocks of trunk mesoderm or adjacent tissues and share many of the ducts.
Thus although the two systems have nothing common functionally they are closely associated in their use of common ducts and are studied under the broad heading of urinogenital system.
The function of the excretory system is crucial in considering the possible environment of the ‘vertebrate life ’. Several main functions can be attributed to all vertebrate excretory systems:
Excretion of nitrogenous waste products.
Maintaining homeostasis with regard to ions (i.e. salt balance).
Regaining valuable substances (glucose, salts, amino acids, etc.)
Maintaining a physiological osmotic value (i.e. water balance).
The excretory system is formed by a series of paired, segmental nephrons that begin with a nephrostome opening into the coelomic cavity.
A pair of glomeruli per segment, supplied by branches from the aorta, projects into the coelomic cavity close to these nephrostomes.
At a later stage of development, the glomerulus/nephrostome area becomes separated from the rest of the coelomic cavity by an epithelial fold.
The nephrons connect to a duct that is formed by caudal growth of the most anterior nephric tubules. These paired urinary ducts open near the anal region.
In aquatic animals such as fish respiration takes place through special respiratory organs called gills, however lung fish respiration takes place through lungs. Gills are present on both the sides of the head of fish. The gills are covered by gill covers also called operculum. When the fish open its mouth, water is drawn into the buccal cavity and passed through the gills. The gills contain special type of cells that absorb the oxygen present in water. The absorbed oxygen is then supplied to all the cells of body through blood. In the cells, oxygen is converted into carbon dioxide and returned back to gills through blood. Ultimately, the gills release the carbon dioxide in water passing through them.
Respiration in Fish
The gills of fish are very efficient; it is estimated gills can extract about 80% oxygen dissolved in water. In addition to the respiratory organs, the gills have an important role in maintaining the right balance of salts in the body.
Fishes, amphibians, reptiles, and birds have paired pharyngeal ultimobranchial glands that secrete the hypocalcemic hormone calcitonin. The corpuscles of Stannius, unique glandular islets found only in the kidneys of bony fishes, secrete a peptide called hypocalcin.
The main function of gills is respiration...In gills, there are many hair like projections called gill filaments..in gill filaments, there are number of lamella, from transfer of gases and water occur..
Parental care is any behavior pattern in which a parent invests time or energy in feeding and protecting its offspring.
Parental care is a form of altruism since this type of behaviour involves increasing the fitness of the offspring at the expense of the parents.
The evolution of parental care is beneficial as it facilitates offspring performance traits that are ultimately tied to offspring fitness.
Parental care is evolved in those organism which produce limited no. of eggs to ensure the continuity of their race.
The vertebrate brain
The vertebrate brain is the main part of the central nervous system. The brain and the spinal cord make up the central nervous system,
In most of the vertebrates the brain is at the front, in the head. It is protected by the skull and close to the main sense organs.
Brains are extremely complex and the part of human and animal body. The brain controls the other organs of the body, either by activating muscles or by causing secretion of chemicals such as hormones and neurotransmitters.
Muscular action allows rapid and coordinated responses to changes in the environment.
The brain of an adult human weights about 1300–1400 grams .
In vertebrates, the spinal cord by itself can cause reflex responses as well as simple movement such as swimming or walking. However, sophisticated control of behaviour requires a centralized brain.
The structure of all vertebrate brains is basically the same.
At the same time, during the course of evolution, the vertebrate brain has undergone changes, and become more effective.
In so-called 'lower' animals, most or all of the brain structure is inherited, and therefore their behaviour is mostly instinctive.
In mammals, and especially in man, the brain is developed further during life by learning. This has the benefit of helping them fit better into their environment. The capacity to learn is seen best in the cerebral cortex.
Three principles
The brain and nervous system is essentially a system which makes connections. It has input from sense organs and output to muscles. It is connected in several ways with the endocrine system, which makes hormones, and the digestive system and sex system. Hormones work slowly, so those changes are gradual.
The brain is a kind of department store. It has, all inter-connected, departments which do different things. They all help each other gather senses.
Much of what the body does is not conscious. Basically, much of the body runs on automatic (breathing, heart beat, hungry, hair growth) adjusted by the autonomic nervous system. The brain, too, does much of its work without a person noticing it. The unconscious mind refers to the brain activities which are hardly ever noticed.
The primitive blueprint for the heart and circulatory system emerged with the arrival of the third mesodermal germ layer in bilaterians. Since then, hearts in animals have evolved from a single layered tube to a multiple chambered heart in due course of time.
The basic fundamental plan of the aortic arches is similar in different vertebrates during embryonic stages.
But in adult the condition of the arrangement is changed either being lost or modified considerably.
The number of aortic arches is gradually reduced as the scale of evolution of vertebrates is ascended.
The embryonic aortic arches were basically six pairs.
But with progressive evolution , there has been consequent reduction in numbers of aortic arches.
In the basic pattern the major arterial channels consists of
A ventral aorta emerging from the heart and passing forward beneath the pharynx
A dorsal aorta paired above the pharynx and passing caudal above the digestive tract.
Six pairs of aortic arches connecting ventral aorta to with the dorsal aorta.
1st aortic arch= Mandibular aortic arch
2nd Aortic arch= hyoid aortic arch
3rd ,4th ,5th and 6th aortic arches in case of aquatic animal , known as branchial aortic arches.
In aquatic animals such as fish respiration takes place through special respiratory organs called gills, however lung fish respiration takes place through lungs. Gills are present on both the sides of the head of fish. The gills are covered by gill covers also called operculum. When the fish open its mouth, water is drawn into the buccal cavity and passed through the gills. The gills contain special type of cells that absorb the oxygen present in water. The absorbed oxygen is then supplied to all the cells of body through blood. In the cells, oxygen is converted into carbon dioxide and returned back to gills through blood. Ultimately, the gills release the carbon dioxide in water passing through them.
Respiration in Fish
The gills of fish are very efficient; it is estimated gills can extract about 80% oxygen dissolved in water. In addition to the respiratory organs, the gills have an important role in maintaining the right balance of salts in the body.
Fishes, amphibians, reptiles, and birds have paired pharyngeal ultimobranchial glands that secrete the hypocalcemic hormone calcitonin. The corpuscles of Stannius, unique glandular islets found only in the kidneys of bony fishes, secrete a peptide called hypocalcin.
The main function of gills is respiration...In gills, there are many hair like projections called gill filaments..in gill filaments, there are number of lamella, from transfer of gases and water occur..
Parental care is any behavior pattern in which a parent invests time or energy in feeding and protecting its offspring.
Parental care is a form of altruism since this type of behaviour involves increasing the fitness of the offspring at the expense of the parents.
The evolution of parental care is beneficial as it facilitates offspring performance traits that are ultimately tied to offspring fitness.
Parental care is evolved in those organism which produce limited no. of eggs to ensure the continuity of their race.
The vertebrate brain
The vertebrate brain is the main part of the central nervous system. The brain and the spinal cord make up the central nervous system,
In most of the vertebrates the brain is at the front, in the head. It is protected by the skull and close to the main sense organs.
Brains are extremely complex and the part of human and animal body. The brain controls the other organs of the body, either by activating muscles or by causing secretion of chemicals such as hormones and neurotransmitters.
Muscular action allows rapid and coordinated responses to changes in the environment.
The brain of an adult human weights about 1300–1400 grams .
In vertebrates, the spinal cord by itself can cause reflex responses as well as simple movement such as swimming or walking. However, sophisticated control of behaviour requires a centralized brain.
The structure of all vertebrate brains is basically the same.
At the same time, during the course of evolution, the vertebrate brain has undergone changes, and become more effective.
In so-called 'lower' animals, most or all of the brain structure is inherited, and therefore their behaviour is mostly instinctive.
In mammals, and especially in man, the brain is developed further during life by learning. This has the benefit of helping them fit better into their environment. The capacity to learn is seen best in the cerebral cortex.
Three principles
The brain and nervous system is essentially a system which makes connections. It has input from sense organs and output to muscles. It is connected in several ways with the endocrine system, which makes hormones, and the digestive system and sex system. Hormones work slowly, so those changes are gradual.
The brain is a kind of department store. It has, all inter-connected, departments which do different things. They all help each other gather senses.
Much of what the body does is not conscious. Basically, much of the body runs on automatic (breathing, heart beat, hungry, hair growth) adjusted by the autonomic nervous system. The brain, too, does much of its work without a person noticing it. The unconscious mind refers to the brain activities which are hardly ever noticed.
The primitive blueprint for the heart and circulatory system emerged with the arrival of the third mesodermal germ layer in bilaterians. Since then, hearts in animals have evolved from a single layered tube to a multiple chambered heart in due course of time.
The basic fundamental plan of the aortic arches is similar in different vertebrates during embryonic stages.
But in adult the condition of the arrangement is changed either being lost or modified considerably.
The number of aortic arches is gradually reduced as the scale of evolution of vertebrates is ascended.
The embryonic aortic arches were basically six pairs.
But with progressive evolution , there has been consequent reduction in numbers of aortic arches.
In the basic pattern the major arterial channels consists of
A ventral aorta emerging from the heart and passing forward beneath the pharynx
A dorsal aorta paired above the pharynx and passing caudal above the digestive tract.
Six pairs of aortic arches connecting ventral aorta to with the dorsal aorta.
1st aortic arch= Mandibular aortic arch
2nd Aortic arch= hyoid aortic arch
3rd ,4th ,5th and 6th aortic arches in case of aquatic animal , known as branchial aortic arches.
Why do animals need to breathe?
Breathing is important to organisms because cells require energy (oxygen) to move, reproduce and function. Breath also expels carbon dioxide, which is a by-product of cellular processes within the bodies of animals.
Respiration is the process of releasing energy from food and this takes place inside the cells of the body.
The process of respiration involves taking in oxygen (of air) into cells, using it for releasing energy by burning food, and then eliminating the waste products (carbon dioxide and water) from the body.
Respiration is essential for life because it provides energy for carrying out all the life processes which are necessary to keep the organisms alive.
The energy produced during respiration is stored in the form of ATP (Adenosine Tri- Phosphate) molecules in the cells of the body and used by the organism as when required.
KEY POINTS
Life started in an anaerobic environment in the so called ‘primodial broth’ (a mixture of organic molecules.
Subsequently, oxygen strangely enough became an crucial factor for aerobic metabolism especially in the higher life forms.
The rise of an oxygenic environment was an important event in the diversification of life.
It evoked a dramatic shift from inefficient to sophisticated oxygen dependent oxidizing ecosystems.
Anaerobic fermentation, the metabolic process that prevailed for the first about 2 billion years of the evolution of life, was a very inefficient way of extracting energy from organic molecules. Ex: A molecule of glucose, e.g., produces only two molecules of ATP (≈ 15 kCal) compared with 36 ATP molecules (≈ 263 kCal) in oxygenic respiration.
Aerobic metabolism must have developed at a critical point when the partial pressure of oxygen rose from an initial level to one adequately high to drive it passively across the cell membrane.
Respiration is a complex and highly integrated biomechanical, physiological, and behavioral processes.
The transfer of O2 occurs through a flow of tissue barriers and compartments by diffusion down a partial pressure gradient, which drops to about zero at the mitochondrial level.
Acquisition of molecular oxygen (O2) from the external fluid media (water and air) and the discharge of carbon dioxide (CO2) into the same milieu is the primary role of respiration.
The respiratory system is a biological system consisting of specific organs and structures.
Accssory respiratiory organs in fishesaadiihussain
Gills are primary respiratory organs in fishes, Extra branchial respiration is highly useful for survival when oxygen supplied by gills is not sufficient.
Physiology of Respiration in InvertebratesPRANJAL SHARMA
In physiology, respiration is the movement of oxygen from the outside environment to the cells within tissues, and the removal of carbon dioxide in the opposite direction. In these slides you will get to know about Physiology of Respiration in Invertibrates.
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
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This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
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Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
Prix Galien International 2024 Forum ProgramLevi Shapiro
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The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
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Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
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2. It is a biological system consisting of specific organs
and structures used for the process of respiration in
an organism
WHAT IS RESPIRATORY SYSTEM?
3. Gas exchange: Oxygen enters blood and carbon
dioxide leaves
Regulation of blood pH: Altered by changing blood
carbon dioxide levels
Voice production: Movement of air past vocal folds
makes sound and speech.
Olfaction: Smell occurs when airborne molecules are
drawn into nasal cavity.
Protection: Against microorganisms by preventing
entry and removing them from respiratory surfaces.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM FUNCTIONS
5. Respiratory system does this through breathing.
When we breathe, we inhale oxygen and exhale
carbon dioxide. This exchange of gases is the
respiratory system’s means of getting oxygen to the
blood.
HOW DOES IT WORK?
6. Endoderm forms the respiratory system, having a
sheet of approximately 500-1000 cells.
Phases of Lung Development- growth and
transcription factors.
EMBRYONIC ORIGIN
7. Mechanism of respiration
Chordates have one of two basic structures for
respiration:
Gills – for aquatic chordates
Example: tunicates, fish and amphibians
Lungs - for terrestrial chordates
Examples: adult amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals
8. 1.) Aquatic Gills
Water flows
through the mouth
then over the gills
where oxygen is
removed
Carbon dioxide
and water are then
pumped out
through the
operculum
9. Increase the surface area
Containing blood vessels covered by a thin epithelial
layer
Organized into a series of plates
Countercurrent principle
Maybe:
internal (as in crabs and fish) or
external to the body (as in some amphibians).
10. 2. ) Vertebrate lungs
As you move from amphibians to mammals the
surface area of the lungs increases
Insures a greater amount of gas exchange (or a two way
flow of air).
Birds, by contrast have lungs and air sacs which
have only a one-way flow of air.
This allows for them to have constant contact with fresh
air.
This adaptation enables them to fly at high altitudes
where there is less oxygen.
11. Section 33-3
Salamander Lizard PigeonPrimate
Nostrils, mouth, and
throat
Trachea
Lung
Air sac
Figure 33–10: Vertebrate Lungs
12. Although…
o Skin
- Examples:
Amphibians, Humans (also)
-ancestral form of respiration
-sometimes used External cutaneous respiration
-Use their outer surfaces
-Gas exchange occurs at capillaries located
throughout the body
13. Section 37-3
Flowchart
Oxygen and
carbon dioxide
exchange at
alveoli
Oxygen-rich
air from
environment
Bronchioles
Nasal
cavities
Pharynx Trachea Bronchi
BronchiolesAlveoli
Pharynx
Nasal
cavities
Carbon
dioxide-rich
air to the
environment
Bronchi
Trachea
Movement of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide In and
Out of the Respiratory System
BIG
QUESTION
…
WHY DO ANIMALS BREATHE?
15. Gills
mediate gas exchange
located at the side of the head
made up of gill filaments , feather structures that provide a
large surface for gas exchange
Adult fishes have a pair of gills. Each gills is covered
by a bony lid. A fish draws in water by closing the lid over
its gills and opening its mouth. When the fish closes its
mouth and opens the gill lid, the water is forced out and
over the respiratory surfaces of the gill filaments.
16. Gill Structure
Gill filaments – the site of gas exchange
(Each gill filament consists of an upper and lower surface
covered with minute ridges known as lamellae.)
Gill rakers – appendages along the front edge of the gill
arch
Gill arches – support the gills
Swim bladder – gas filled chamber that allow the bony fish
to remain floating in the water
17.
18. Bony fishes
Water enters the gill chamber through the fish’s mouth and
exits through gill openings under the operculum. Blood
flowing through the gill filaments absorbs oxygen from the
water.
Some species of bony fishes can absorb considerable
amounts of oxygen through their skin.
19. Bony fishes
Usually have 5 gill slits
Operculum projects backward over gill chambers
Interbranchial septa are very short or absent
Lamellae are made of extremely thin membranes (1 cell
thick) and are primary sites of gas exchange.
Water flows across the gill filaments and oxygen is
removed and passes into the blood by diffusion.
To increase the efficiency of oxygen uptake a
countercurrent method is used; blood flows through the
lamellae in a direction opposite to the water flow through
the gill filaments. Countercurrent flow ensures a steady
oxygen.
21. The anatomical structure of the lungs is less
complex in reptiles than in mammals, with
reptiles lacking the very extensive airway
tree structure found in mammalian lungs. Gas
exchange in reptiles still occurs
in alveoli however, reptiles do not possess
a diaphragm.
Thus, breathing occurs via a change in the
volume of the body cavity which is
controlled by contraction of intercostal
muscles in all reptiles except turtles. In
turtles, contraction of specific pairs of flank
muscles governs inspiration or expiration.
22. To survive on land, the reptiles had to develop a skin relatively impermeable to water, so as
to prevent desiccation, and hence not well suited for respiration. The most complex
reptilian lungs are found in sea turtles such as Chelonia mydas, the green turtle.
Crocodiles and alligators have a specialized muscle attached to the posterior surface of
the liver; the anterior surface of the liver in turn is attached to the posterior surface of
the lungs
The adoption of a rigid shell by turtles and tortoises necessitated the development of
highly specialized skeletal muscles to inflate the lungs. In the tortoise Testudo graeca,
lung ventilation is achieved by changing the volume of the body cavity.
The breathing patterns of most reptiles are not regular, usually consisting of a series of
active inspirations and expirations followed by relatively long pauses. The metabolic rate
of most reptiles is one-fifth to one-tenth that of birds or mammals, and constant lung
ventilation is unnecessary in most reptiles.
24. PARTS and FUNCTIONS
Larynx – also known as “voice box”. This is supported by the hyoid cartilage
HYOID CARTILAGE – a flat body covered by the muscles at the floor of the
buccal cavity.
Arytenoids – a pair of valve like cartilage forming the dorsal roof of pharynx
and sides of glottis
Lungs – a pair of thin-walled sacs located at the antero-lateral region of the
pleuroperitoneal cavity.
Cricoid – a ring like cartilage surrounding the arytenoids.
Vocal cords – the sound producing apparatus inside the larynx
Alveoli – found at the inner wall of the lungs which divides the lungs into
small chambers.
Pleural membrane – shiny thin membrane that covers the outer surfaces of
the lungs.
Glottis – opening of the larynx.
25. Unlike birds and mammals, amphibians are cold
blooded.
They do not use up any energy for keeping their
bodies at a constant temperature.
26. PULMONARY RESPIRATION
Respiration through lungs is called PULMONARY
RESPIRATION.
This respiration occurs only when the need of Oxygen
is more during swimming and jumping
Alveoli are present. Air enters into the alveoli through
the external and internal nares, buccopharyngeal
cavity, glottis, laryngotrachial chamber, and bronchi.
27. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AMPHIBIAN
LUNGS AND HUMAN LUNGS
HUMAN
LUNGS
AMPHIBIAN
LUNGS
MORE ALVEOLI
Alveoli increases the amount of surface
that oxygen can enter our bodies
through.
LESS ALVEOLI
Since amphibians don’t need much
oxygen as humans, they have less
alveoli.
HAS A DIAPHRAGM
It causes the air to rush in and out of the
lungs.
NO DIAPHRAGM
They have to force air into their lungs by
moving their mouth as we do while
swallowing.
28. CUTANEOUS RESPIRATION
Respiration through the skin is called CUTANEOUS
RESPIRATION.
It occurs in hibernation and in water
The skin of amphibians are very thin and is rich with
blood capillaries.
The water carries oxygen which diffuses into the
capillaries and the carbon dioxide in the blood
diffuses out.
30. Parts:
• Larynx – is not used to make sound
• Syrinx – serve as voice box
• Lungs
• Air Sacs - Depending upon the
species, the bird has seven or nine
air sacs.
31. The air sacs include:
Two posterior thoracic
Two abdominal
Two anterior thoracic
Two cervical (these are not
present in some species)
One interclavicular
32. The air sacs of birds extend into the humerus (the bone
between the shoulder and elbow), the femur (the thigh
bone), the vertebrae and even the skull.
33. The gas volume of the bird lung <
gas volume of the mammal lung.
Lung is connected to
voluminous air sacs by a series of
tubes, making the total volume of
the respiratory system about twice
that of mammals of comparable
size.
34. Mechanism
Birds do not have a diaphragm.
air is moved in and out of the
respiratory system through pressure
changes in the air sacs.
Aspiration into the air sacs is
produced by expansion of the chest
and abdominal cavity.
Expiration is caused by compression
of the air sacs by skeletal muscle, this
causes the sternum to be pushed
outward.
35. The lungs of birds do not inflate and
deflate but rather retain a constant
volume.
exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide occurs in microscopic sacs in
the lungs, called 'alveoli.' In the avian
lung, the gas exchange occurs in the
walls of microscopic tubules, called
'air capillaries.'
36. The air sacs permit a unidirectional flow of air
through the lungs.
Unidirectional flow means that air moving
through bird lungs is largely 'fresh' air & has a
higher oxygen content. In contrast, air flow is
'bidirectional' in mammals, moving back and
forth into and out of the lungs.
As a result, air coming into a mammal's lungs
is mixed with 'old' air & this 'mixed air' has
less oxygen. So, in bird lungs, more oxygen is
available to diffuse into the blood
37.
38. Respiratory cycle of a bird
The air does not go directly to the lung, but
instead travels to the caudal (posterior) air
sacs. A small amount of air will pass
through the caudal air sacs to the lung.
39. the air is moved from the posterior air
sacs through the ventrobronchi and
dorsobronchi into the lungs. The bronchi
continue to divide into smaller diameter
air capillaries. Blood capillaries flow
through the air capillaries and this is
where the oxygen and carbon dioxide
are exchanged.
40. When the bird inspires the second time, the air
moves to the cranial air sacs.
On the second expiration, the air moves out of
the cranial air sacs, through the syrinx into the
trachea, through the larynx, and finally through
the nasal cavity and out of the nostrils.
41. Bird-like respiratory systems in dinosaurs -- A recent
analysis showing the presence of a very bird-like
pulmonary, or lung, system in predatory dinosaurs
provides more evidence of an evolutionary link
between dinosaurs and birds.
44. The mammalian respiratory system equilibrates air to the body,
protects against foreign materials, and allows for gas exchange.
In mammals, pulmonary ventilation occurs via inhalation
when air enters the body through the nasal cavity.
The chief organ in mammalian
respiration is the lungs.
Inhalation happens when the rib cage opens up and the diaphragm
flattens and moves downward. The lungs can then expand into the
larger space that causes the air pressure inside them to decrease,
and the drop in air pressure inside the lung makes the outside air
rush inside.
Exhalation is the opposite process. The diaphragm and the rib
muscles relax to their neutral state that causes the lungs to
contract. The squashing of the lungs increases their air pressure
and forces the air to flow out.
45.
46. Horses are obligate nasal breathers, which means that they
must breathe through their noses.
It is thought that this modification allows horses
to graze with their heads down while separate
nasal passages breath in air and sniff for
potential predators.
Marine mammals breathe oxygen with lungs just like their terrestrial
brethren, but with a few differences. First of all, to prevent water from
getting into their airway they have adapted muscles or cartilaginous
flaps to seal their tracheas when under the water. Additionally, they
exchange up to 90% of their gases in a single breath, which helps them
gather as much oxygen as possible.
Lastly, it can be dangerous for diving
mammals to have air in their lungs when
they dive to great depths.