Respiratory problems application of vaccines

Respiratory Problems of Poultry
&
Application of Vaccines
Dr. Mohammad Akram
Ph.D. (Microbiology)
Consultant Microbiologist
MICRO LABORATORIES
KARACHI

Respiratory System of Chicken
Non Viral Respiratory Diseases ( Parasitic, Fungal, Mycoplasmosis & Bacterial)
Viral Respiratory Diseases ( ND, IB, AI, ILT, APV & FP)
Application of Vaccines in Poultry

Lungs of chicken are smaller than mammals, therefore they have
9 Air Sacs:-
2 pairs of Thoracic
2 Pairs of Abdominal
1 single Intraclavicular
Nose /
Nasal Passage

Respiratory system is one of the most important system of
birds which is not only supplying Oxygen to blood via lungs
to keep the birds alive but also helping to remove toxic
Carbon dioxide (CO2) gas from bird’s body.
Due to the absence of sweat gland in birds, respiratory
system is playing a vital role to maintain body temperature
through panting, specially during hot days.
Normal respiration rate of resting birds is between 15-25 /
min., but it can be up to 50 / min depending upon the CO2
content of blood.

More than 25 ppb of Ammonia gas can
cause stress and decreases the PH of
tracheal mucosa (ACIDIC), therefore
movement of tracheal Celia disturbed and
chances of entry of pathogens directly in
blood increases like E. Coli. Therefore, very
few numbers of microorganisms can cause
infection.
Excess Ammonia damaging the Respiratory System

NON VIRAL RESPIRATORY DISEASES
Parasitic Problem
Fungal Problem
Mycoplasmosis &Bacterial Problems

Gape worm – Presence of Syngamus Trachea in the
LRT is responsible for dry rales, gasping and
coughing.
Thiabendazole @ 0.5% in feed for 10 days can control
the problem.
Parasitic Respiratory Problem

Fungal Infection
Example : Apergillosis
Aspergillus fumigatus (Brooder Pneumonia) is causing respiratory
problem in young chicks. Source of infection is contaminated hatcher &
brooding houses, particularly wood shaving.
Treatment:
Copper Sulphate solution(1:2000-4000) in drinking water for 3 days.

Mycoplasmosis
Mycoplasma is smaller than bacteria with out having cell
wall. Mostly kept in between Bacteria & Virus. Important
spp. are M.gallisepticum and M.synoviae causing
respiratory problem and Synovitis respectively. These
infections are transovarian therefore difficult to control.

Infectious Coryza
Caused by Haemophillus paragallinarum. Birds older than
12 weeks are most Susceptible. Transmission from bird to
bird is very fast, feed and water is the mode of spread in
infected flock. Recovered birds remain latent carrier and
become source of infection for next flock. Coryza is not
transovarian.

Pasteurellosis (Fowl Cholera)
Caused by Pasteurella multicoda.
Susceptible age is more than 6 weeks, recovered birds
remain carriers for next flocks. Rodents & free flying birds
are the major source of spread. Infected parent does not
transfer the infection in hatching eggs / day old chicks
Swelling of wattles Infected heart and liver

Escherichia Coli (E.Coli) is causing septicemia in poultry. It could be a
primary cause of infection or mostly act as opportunist bacteria causing
secondary infections after Mycoplasmosis, Newcastle Disease (ND),
Infectious Bronchitis (IB), Avian influenza (AI) and infectious Bursal
Disease (IBD).
Colibacillosis is an environmental disease spread by air, water, feed and
litter. Oral route of infection is common but when trachea damaged by
Mycoplasmosis and/or respiratory viruses it can enter through respiratory
route and cause severe septicemia in short time. Colibacillosis can easily
be diagnosed due to the observation of pericarditis & perihepatitis on PM
examination but culture sensitivity is necessary for confirmation and
treatment.
All ages are susceptible but young chicks are facing heavy losses,
particularly when having yolk sac infection due to contaminated hatchers.
Colibacillosis

E. coli infection showing Pericarditis / Perihepatitis

Treatment of Bacterial
Diseases & Mycoplasmosis

Important Points to use Drug
Site of infection
Septicemia e.g. Coli Septicemia (Blood Stream).
Digestive tract e.g. Necrotic enteritis.
Absorption of drug
Good Absorption (water medication)
Poor Absorption (I/M or S/cut)
Required MIC (Minimum Inhibitory Conc.) of drug To find out the
dose
Drug interaction Synergism (penicillin + Antagonism (Quinolones + Oxy.)
Drug Residue Every drug has different residual effect on meat & egg.

Absorption of drugs
Drug Gut Absorption
Activity Against
Mycoplasma E.Coli
Colistin Low Low High
Neomycin Low Low High
Spectinomycin Low Low High
Gentamycin Low Low High
Streptomycin Low Low High
Tetracyclines High Moderate High
Amoxycillin High Low High
Chloremphenicol High Low High
Nitrofuran Moderate Low High
Kitasamycin High High Low
Tiamutin High High Low
Tylocin High High Low
Spiramycin High High Low
Lincomycin - Moderate Low
Trimethoprim + sulpha High Low High
Flemequine High Moderate High
Kitasamycin + Amoxicillin High High High
Quinolones High High High

Synergism ( Can be Use )
NEOMYCINwithSPIRAMYCIN & TETRACYCLINE
STREPTOMYCINwithPENICILLIN & SPIRAMYCIN
SPECTINOMYCINwithLINCOMYCIN
FLUMEQUINEwithCOLISTIN
ERYTHROMYCINwithCOLISTIN & NITOFURAN
SUPHONAMIDESwithTRIMETHOPRIM
TYLOCINwithCOLISTIN & GENTAMYCIN
TETRACYCLINEwithNEOMYCIN & COLISTIN
Antagonism ( Do Not Use)
TETRACYCLINEwithGENTAMYCIN, QUINOLONES & PENICILLIN
PENICILLINwithSULPHONAMIDES & TETRACYCLINE
NITROFURANwithQUINOLONES & SULPHONAMIDES
TYLOCINwithAMOXYCYLIN & AMPICILLIN
SULPHONAMIDESwithAMOXYCYCLIN, AMPICILLIN, NITROFURAN & PENICILLIN
QUINOLONESwithNITROFURAN & TETRACYCLINE
STREPTOMYCINwithSULPHONAMIDES
GENTAMYCINwithTETRACYCLINE

Drug With drawal time (day)
Chlorotetracycline 1
Streptomycin 0
Penicillin 1
Erythromycin 1 – 2
Gentamycin Sulphate 35
Virginiamycin 0
Lincomycin 0
Spectinomycin 5
Madoramycin 5
Monensin 5
Neomycin 14
Sulphonomides 5 – 10
Tylocin feed Premix 5
Tylocin Injectable 5
Tylocin W/Soluble 1
Drug residue in eggs

Vaccination of Bacterial diseases / Mycoplasmosis
Bacterial Vaccines
Inactivated vaccine against Salmonella SE / ST,
E.coli, Fowl Cholera & Infectious Coryza and
live vaccine against SG are availabl No doubt
bacterial vaccines are weak vaccines and not
giving full protection but vaccinated flocks with
related strains are less susceptible to infection,
therefore losses in vaccinated flocks are much
lesser than unvaccinated flocks.

Mycoplasma Vaccines
Inactivated vaccines of Mycoplasma are not effective.
Live vaccines against MG, e.g. F Strain & TS- 11 are
working with some limitations and precautions, by
replacing the field strain. It is recommended to use these
vaccines at the age of 6 weeks in MG free Layers &
Breeders.
If flocks are already infected before the age of 6 weeks
with field strain, then MG live vaccine will not be
effective.
Vaccination of Bacterial diseases / Mycoplasmosis

New Castle Disease (ND)
Infectious Bronchitis (IB)
Avian Influenza (AI)
Infectious Laryngo Tracheitis (ILT)
Avian Pneumo Virus (APV)
Fowl Pox (FP)
Viral Respiratory Diseases

ND virus is a RNA virus and belong to paramyxovirus family.
Antigenically different strains are almost same but they are classified
and differentiated on the basis of Virulence for chickens.
Types of ND virus based on virulence:-
Lentogenic ( Mild)
Mesogenic ( Intermediate)
Velogenic ( Highly Virulent)
Types of ND Virus based on site of infection:-
Pneumotropic - Respiratory tract
Neurotropic - Brain Infection and/or Respiratory
Viscertropic - Intestinal tract
Highly virulent ND virus belong to viscerotropic type. Asciatic type is called
Viscerotropic Velogenic Newcastle Disease Virus (VVNDV).
New Castle Disease (ND)

Heamagglutination of chickens RBCs.
Incubation Period = 5 - 7 Days.
Disease Course = 10 - 14 Days.
Virus remain alive in litter = 2 Months.
Virus remain alive in dead carcasses = 1 year.
Inactivation by heat = 30 minutes at 60oC.
Important Characteristics of ND virus

 Sudden onset and rapid spread through the flock.
 Chilling. Watery discharged from nostrils.
 Gasping.
 Facial swelling.
 Paralysis.
 Trembling & twisting of neck (Torticollis).
 Mortality in young chickens from 10 to 80% and drop
in egg production in adult birds from 20 to 100 %
(Depending upon the virulence of ND virus).
 Loss of appetite.
 Decreased water consumption.
Diagnosis of ND
Field Diagnosis

The effective control of ND depends equally on:-
 Understanding the methods of spread.
 Vaccines and their application.
Control of ND

 Human agency (workers, advisors, vaccination crew, visitors).
 Multiage groups (cycle of infection).
 Breeding Farms (proper vaccination to get uniform MAB
levels).
 Disposal of litter and dropping (virus remain alive 2 months).
 Air born spread (1 kilometer).
 Spread by rodents and other small mammals (cats can act
as carriers).
Control on spread of ND Virus

Cost involved.
Degree of immunity necessary for protection.
Exposure to local field virus in terms of its virulence and prevalence.1
In general the more active vaccines (Mesogenic) are used in areas where
the field disease is severe. A vaccination program based on lentogenic
vaccines is adopted in areas where the field virus is of lesser virulence.
Lentogenic vaccines and Inactivated vaccines of high quality applied which
can result the degree of protection that are equal to those obtained with
Mesogenic strain.
Live Vaccines
Lentogenic (HB1, Lasota Strain) Mesogenic (Mukteswar & Komarov Strain)
Inactivated vaccine (oil base)
Types of ND Vaccines
Choice of ND vaccine based on

In Pakistan Viscerotropic Velogenic Newcastle
Disease Virus (VVNDV) is being isolated and
confirmed through labs. Therefore more rigid
vaccination program against ND is required to get
optimum protection. Lentogenic + Mesogenic or
Lentogenic + Inactivated vaccines should be use.
Revaccination of live vaccination in
layers/breeders every 6 – 8 weeks during
production shall maintain the humoral as well as
local immunity and save the production losses.

Infectious Bronchitis ( IB )
Infectious Bronchitis (IB) in chicken has been reported
in 1931 in North Dakota.
Now prevalent in all parts of the world. IB is a RNA virus
belong to Corona family.
All ages of chickens are susceptible to the virus. The
virus is highly contagious, transmitted rapidly through
respiratory route within flock and by aerosol over
considerable distances.
Incubation period of IB is only 17-36 hrs.

Antigenic Variation of IB Virus
High incidence of mutations of IB virus is complicating
the diagnosis and prevention of disease.
IB Virus contain three antigen-inducing epitopes :-
-Nucleocapsid Portein
-Membrane Protein:- Induces group specific antibodies
-Spike Proteins:- Responsible for the great
antigenic variation of the IB virus

Every year there are many reports about new isolates of
IBV, which are more or less antigenically different from
the strains already know .
Since 1975 the occurrence of many new serotypes is
reported not only in Europe but in many other countries
world wide, e.g. Dutch variant strains ( D-274, D-1466,
D-3128).These strains has caused severe losses in past
but now antibodies against these strains were found in
many countries indicating the presence of antigenically
related strains in the field.
But only in few cases these strains could be identified as
the cause of IB problem in the field.

In 1991 a new disease condition was found in
breeder flocks of UK which was associated
with higher mortality and morbidity of birds,
including drop in egg production, poor shell
quality, discoloration of egg shell and severe
drop in Hatchability. Later on identified as IB
variant 4/91 or 793B or CR88. Now this IB
variant strain reported in many European and
other countries around the world

USA :- Massachusetts, Arkansas, Florida, Holte, Gray, Connecticut.
EUROPE :- D-274, D-1466, D-3128, PL- 88088, 4/91, 793-B, CR- 88,
Italy-02
AUSTRALIA:- T- Strain ( Nephropathogenic)
CHINA :-QX ( new genotype)
Presence of most of the above strains have been confirmed in Asia
and Middle East
Important IB Strains

IB QX genotype
Originally this genotype was identified in China. In
December 2003, GD Animal Health Service Deventer,
Netherlands discovered the new very common IB D-
388 strain (genotype QX) in the south of Netherlands.
This Dutch variant was the first of its kind to be
detected in Europe and remains the most diagnosed
type.
In the period 2008-2009, IBV serotype D-388 (genotype
QX ), is the most indicated type; the number of cases in
layers are still increasing.
Since 2004, this genotype is not only detected in
Netherlands but also in Germany, Belgium and France.

IB QX genotype
Positive Serology against this strain found in
Syria but further study is required to confirm
the presence of same strain in other parts of
Middle East through virus isolation etc.
GD – Animal Health Service Deventer,
Netherlands can be contacted for further study
on IB Viruses.
Website www.gddeventer.com
E-mail info@gddeventer.com

It is not only affecting the respiratory system of chicken but
affecting other organs:-
Lesions of the respiratory system:
Tracheitis & Bronchitis
Increased mortality by secondary infections (e.g. E coli,
Mycoplasmosis and Coryza )
Lesions of kidney:
Nephritis ( Urolithiasis)
Lesions of the reproductive system:
Reduction of egg production / reduction of egg weight.
Shell quality (thin shells) / Liquidation of the albumen.
Misshapen eggs / reduced hatchability.

IB infected table eggs
Discolored and Misshapen Misshapen

Normal eggs
IB infected eggs
of same flock
IB infected Broiler hatching eggs

Normal egg white
IB Infected egg white

IBV infections can be diagnosed by detection of IB Virus itself
by these tests :-
Virus Isolation (VI)
Immunofluorescence Assay (IFA)
Immunoperoxidase Assay (IPA)
Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR)
IBV Diagnostic Techniques

IBV infections are detected serologically by these tests:-
Haemagglutination Inhibition (HI)
Agar Gel Precipitation (AGP)
Enzyme Linked Immuno Sorbent Assay (ELISA)
Virus Neutralization (VN)

Use of live IB vaccinations can interfere with
the diagnosis of IB. Vaccine strains are
growing very fast while field viruses of IB are
growing slowly.
Choice of tests and interpretation of their
results can be very difficult and confusing.
Depending on the demands and local
circumstances, a best choice or best
combination of techniques for that situation
can be made

Classification
MYXOVIRUS
(RNA Virus)
Paramyxovirus e.g.
ND, APV (TRT/ART)
Orthomyxovirus e.g.
A.I
A
Humans & Other
mammals
All Avian Virus
belong to “A”
B
Humans
C
Humans & Pigs
Avian Influenza Virus (A.I)

Severe depression, decreased activity.
Decreased feed consumption and emaciation.
Drop in egg production.
Mild to severe respiratory signs: coughing, sneezing, rales,
excessive lacrimation.
Ruffled feathers.
Swollen heads ( necrosis of combs & wattles)
Cyanosis of legs.
Nervous disorders (torticollis – after 5 days of infection)
Diarrhoea.
Commonly observed signs

Inflammation of Trachea
Haemorrhages on visceral organs.
Congestion of lungs.
Nephritis.
Visceral gout.
Damage of ovaries.
Post mortem lesions

Diagnosis of AI
Serology
Antibodies are detectable from 7-10 days p.i by:-
HI test
AGPT
VN test
ELISA etc.
Retesting after 3-4 weeks intervals to see the
changes in titres

Virus Isolation & Identification
Samples:
Swabs from trachea or cloaca; other infected organ in
case of systemic infection.
Method:
Inoculation of 0.1-0.2 ml of the sample into the
allantoic cavity of 9-11 days old embryonated chicken
eggs.
HA activity in the allantoic fluid.
Test for the presence of Type A AIV and typing of HA
and NA.

Antigen detection:
Directigen® Flu A kit
Anigen antigen detection
Direct RNA detection:
RT-PCR
Advance techniques for diagnosis

Control of AI
1. Isolation /identification and serotyping of AI Virus
2. Eradication and disposal of infected flocks
3. Strict boisecurity measures including spray of 1:10 ratio of
cresylic acid and diesel every three to four weeks intervel 10 fts
surrounding area of each poultry house in the presence of birds
and in the absence of birds inside the poultry houses.
4. Vaccination against AI and regular monitoring of its titers
know the efficacy of vaccine and timing of revaccination.

Infectious Laryngo Tracheitis ( ILT )
ILT is caused by Herpes virus, which is a DNA virus. It can
infect the respiratory as well as reproductive systems of
chicken. It is causing gasping with expectoration of bloody
Mucous and severe drop in production with higher
mortality ( 10-20%) and morbidity ( 90-100%). It can affect
chicken of all ages but adult birds are more susceptible
and showing signs of ILT within 2-4 days.
Since last 2 years cases of ILT diagnosed on the basis of
P.M. finding in Karachi
Vaccination of layers with live vaccine at 7 and 15 weeks
of age via eye drop can control the problem.

Avian Pneumo Virus ( APV )
Belong to Paramyxo group of virus ( same group of
NDV). First described in 1970 in South Africa. The
disease caused by this virus termed as Turkey
RhinoTracheitis (TRT), Swollen Head Syndrome (SHS)
and Avian RhinoTracheitis (ART). This is a respiratory
virus but also damaging the reproductive system of
chicken and turkeys, resulting losses in egg production
in layers and acting as primary cause of CRD,
particularly in broilers and also producing signs of
Swollen heads.
Live and inactivated vaccines are available, but should
be used only on confirmation of the presence of APV
in the area.

It is an upper respiratory viral disease caused by Pox
virus, which is a DNA virus and the largest poultry virus.
Pox are of 2 types
1. Dry Pox ( cutaneous type )
2. Wet Pox ( diphtheric type )
In dry pox, lesions are formed on combs, wattles and
eye lids, while in wet pox cheesy nodules are formed in
the larynx and pharynx. Cheesy nodules mostly
blocking the trachea and causing death.
Pox vaccine can safely be used at the age of 6-8 weeks
via wing web route to control the problem.
Fowl Pox ( F P )

Successful vaccination against the
disease is dependent on the amount
of antigen which enters the tissues
of the birds. This depends on the
successful application of vaccines.
Application of vaccines

Eye drop / Intra Nasal
Beak dipping
Wing Web
Intramuscular injection (I/M) & Subcutaneous injection (S/cut)
In Ovo Vaccination
Drinking Water Vaccination
Spray Vaccination (Course or Fine spray)
Application of vaccines
INDIVIDUAL APPLICATIONS
MASS APPLICATION

Precautions in Eye Drop/Intra- Nasal Vaccination
Prepare the vaccine suspension with the
appropriate diluent.
Use the calibrated dropper (1000 doses in
30ml).
Hold the bottle in upside down position and
apply one drop per bird onto the eye or into the
nasal duct.
Use the reconstituted vaccines immediately after
mixing in dropper.

Try to finish the mixed vaccine within 1 hr.
and prepare fresh dropper for further use.
Compulsory route of vaccination for e.g. ILT
Simultaneous vaccination with inactivated
vaccine is possible.
The vaccination can be considered correct on
complete absorption of the drop in eye /
nostril, therefore bird should be hold till
absorption of drop.
Precautions in Eye Drop/Intra- Nasal Vaccination

Precautions in Beak-Dipping Vaccination
Prepare the vaccine suspension with distilled water.
Use about 150 – 200ml per 1000 chicks.
Dip the beak of each bird up to the nostrils.
Simultaneously vaccination with inactivated vaccine is possible.
Fast and easy vaccination during the early days of life.
Advantages
All birds can be immunized.
Avoid problems with irregular water consumption.
Avoid respiratory reactions as seen after spray vaccination.

Precautions in Wing Web Vaccination
-This method is used for Fowl Pox or Fowl Pox + AE
vaccination.
- Always use proper diluents available with vaccine.
-Never forget to dip the needle after vaccinating each
bird.
-Insert needles in the middle part of the wing web. Do
not insert the needles in feathers or muscles.
-Check at least 100 birds, to see the pock lesions (
swellings), 5-7 days post vaccination at the site of
vaccination.
- Presence of pock lesions will confirm the successful
vaccination and affectivity of vaccine used.

Precautions in I/M or S/Cut. Vaccination
Use Sterile equipment only.
Dilute live vaccine in their appropriate diluents e.g. Marek’s
Disease vaccine, Reo vaccine etc.
Oil Base vaccine should have room-temperature before
application.
Length of the needle: 10 mm & Diameter of needle should be
1 – 1.5 mm.
Subcutaneous route: Inject into the lower part of the neck.
Intramuscular route: Inject in the thigh or breast muscles.

In ovo vaccination
This is a new method of vaccination used to vaccinate
few live vaccines e.g. Marek’s Disease Vaccine or IBD
Vaccine.
Vaccine can be injected before hatching of chicks at the
age of 18 days of embryo via amniotic sacs.
This method of vaccination is helpful to produce
immunity before the hatching of chicks and avoid the
field exposure of disease virus.
This method is highly sophisticated and can only be
done by special expensive complicated machines run
by experts of exclusive companies.

Prior to vaccinate the birds through drinking water, deprive the birds of
water for 1 – 2 hrs. in hot climate and 2 – 4 hrs. in cold climate.
Only live vaccines can be use by this route.
As a rule do not use this rout up to 14 days of age, due to
insufficient water in take.
Do not use any disinfectant or chlorine in drinking water 24 hrs. before,
the day of vaccination and 24 hrs. after vaccination.
Drinking lines(Nipples) and manual drinkers must be empty, cleaned
and rinsed with plain water before using vaccine.
Precations in Drinking Water Vaccination
Age (Days) 7 21 30 40 & above
Volume of water in
liters/1000 birds
7 21 30 40
Following table can be used as reference for dilution of live vaccine.

Precautions in Drinking Water Vaccination
Use clean plastic or non metallic container of an
adequate capacity to dilute the vaccine.
Use good quality of water free from chlorine,
disinfectant and antibiotics.
Mix 2.5gm powdered skim milk or 50ml liquid non fat
milk for each liter of water to be used for vaccine.
Now Blue colored vaccine stabilizer /chlorine
neutralizer available as an alternate of skim milk. It also
work as an indicator.

Add some ice to cool the water roughly between 10 to
15oC
Allow all the ice to melt and add skimmed milk or Blue
dye as recommended.
Keep the water for 15-30 minutes before adding vaccine.

Remove the aluminum seals of vials of vaccine and
take the vials with rubber stopper in the same water
prepared for vaccination.
Now remove the rubber stopper keeping the vial under
the surface of water.
Add water in the vials and close them with rubber
stopper to reconstitute the lyophilized vaccine.
Rinse the vials several times to transfer the total quality
of vaccine in water.

Place half of the quantity of reconstituted vaccine in case of
manual drinkers and remaining half quantity after 30
minutes.
For nipple drinkers whole quantity should be added at once
in the tank.
Use enough drinkers so that at least 70% of birds can drink
at the same time. Movement of workers inside the house
during vaccination will improve the water intake and more
number of birds will get chance to drink.
Birds should consume vaccinated water at the most 2 hr.
but not less than 1 hr.

Precautions in Spray Vaccination
More suitable for close system houses.
Only live vaccines can use by this method
Two methods: Course Spray (70 – 150u) & Fine spray
(15 – 50u)
Use distilled water for preparation of vaccine solution.
First time try with plain water only to know the exact
quantity of water for particular house and number of
birds.

Precautions in Spray Vaccination
Shut down the ventilation and reduce the light intensity.
Do not forget to restart the ventilation after
vaccination
Mixing procedure is same as of drinking water
vaccination.
Quantity of water should be based on type of Spray
(Coarse or Fine), Sprayer machine and capacity of birds
in the house, ranging from 250ml to 1000 ml / 1000 birds.
As a rule of thump, younger the birds, bigger the droplets
size and older the birds, smaller the droplets size

Manual Coarse Spray of DOC at Farm
Use 250 ml Distilled Water for 1000 chicks.
Spray from 30 to 40 cm distance with large droplets of 150
microns.

Day old vaccination in
hatchery by machine

Use 500 ml – 1000 ml Distilled Water for 1000 birds
Droplet size should be 100 – 150 microns
KNAP SACK SPRAYER
Coarse Spray on older birds at Farm

Use 200 ml – 500 ml Distilled Water for 1000 birds,
depending on the flow rate of sprayer.
Droplet size - less than 50 microns.
Follow the recommendations of manufacturer of
sprayer for further details.
Fine Spray on older birds at Farm

Routes of live vaccination and efficacy
Method of vaccination Remarks
Intra Ocular (Eye Drop) Excellent
Intra Nasal Excellent
Spray Good
Beak Dipping Good
Drinking Water Fair
Mouth Drop Not Recommended

Respiratory problems application of vaccines

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