Engineering Construction Notes Summary

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ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION BASIC NOTES
Written & Composed BY SAQIB IMRAN
Cell & WHATSAPP no: 0341-7549889
Email: saqibimran43@gmail.com
BS.TECH(CIVIL) From SARHAD UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE &
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY PESHAWER.

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S.NO TOPICS PAGE NO
1 BRICKS 3
2 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 26
3 BUILDING MATERIALS 41
4 CEMENT 62
5 CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENTS 71
6 FOUNDATIONS, DAMS & ART DESIGN 101
7 IS CODES 123

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BRICKS
A brick is a small man-made rectangular block typically made of fired and sun-
dried clay, used to make wall. Bricks are mostly made of clay.
In India, the standard size of brick as recommended by Bureau of Indian
Standards IS: 2691:1988 is 190 x 90 x 90 mm. IS Code also states that with mortar
thickness added the brick size shall be 200 x 100 x 100 mm.
Quality of Good Bricks-
1- The brick should be table mounted, well burnt in kilns, copper coloured, free
from cracks and with sharp and square edges. The colour should be uniform and
bright.
2- The brick should be uniform in shape and should be of standard size.
3- The brick should give a clear metallic ringing sound when struck with each
other.
4- The brick should not absorb water more than 20 percent by weight for first
class brick and 22 percent for second class bricks, when soaked in cold water for a
period of 24 hours.
5- The brick when broken or fractured should show a bright homogeneous and
uniform compact structure free from voids.
6- The brick should not break in to pieces when dropped flat on hard ground
from a height of about one metre.
7- The brick should be sufficient hard. No impression should be left on brick
surface when it is scratched with finger nail.
8- No brick should have the crushing strength below 105kg/cm2
.
9- The brick should have low thermal conductivity and they should be sound
proof.
10-The brick when soaked in water for 24 hours, should not show deposits of
white salts when allowed to dry in shade.

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TERMS USED IN BRICK MASONRY WORK
1. COURSE:
A horizontal layer of similar bricks or stones that are bonded with mortar is
known as course.
2. QUOINS:
Quoins are the stones used for the corners of the walls.
3. BED:
The horizontal layer of mortar where brick or stone units are laid is known as bed.
4. BACK:
The inner surface of a brick wall which is not exposed termed as back. The
material forming back is known as backing.
5. FACE:
The exterior surface of a brick wall which is exposed to weather termed
as face. The material used in the face of the wall is known as facing.
6. HEARTING:
The interior portion of a wall between the facing and backing is termed
as hearting.
7. JOINT:
The junction of two or more bricks or stones is called joint. There are eight types
of mortar joints-

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1. Concave
2. Vee
3. Flush
4. Raked
5. Extruded
6. Beaded
7. Struck
8. Weathered
8. HEADER:
The shorter side or end face of a brick that is exposed is termed as header.
9. STRETCHER:
The longer narrow side or face of a brick that is exposed is termed as stretcher.
10. FROG:

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An indentation or depression on the top face of the brick made with the object of
forming a key for the mortar is termed as frog. The depth of frog is usually
between 10-20 mm.
11. BOND:
This is the method of arranging bricks so that the individual units are tied
together.
12. ARRIS:
The sharp corner edges of brick is known as arris.
13. SPALLS:
Spalls are the chips of stones used for filling the interstices in stone masonry.
14. BAT:
The portion of bricks cut across the width is termed as bat.
Three Quarter Bat: It is the form of brick bat having its length equal to three
quarter of length of a full bricks.
Half Bat: If the length of the bat is equal to half the length of the full bricks.
Bevelled Bat: A brick bat is called bevelled bat when its width has bevelled.
15. CLOSER:

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Closer is the small piece of brick cut lengthwise in such a manner that its one long
face remains uncut and used at the end of masonry wall to maintain bond
pattern.
16. QUEEN CLOSER:
When a brick is cut along its length, making it two equal pieces then it is called
queen closer.
17: QUEEN CLOSER QUARTER:
When a queen closer is cut in to two equal pieces then it is called as queen closer
quarter.
18. KING CLOSER:
King closer are the portion of a brick obtained by cutting off the triangular piece
between center of one end and the center of one side.
19. BEVELLED CLOSER:
Similar to king closer with the only difference that the whole length of the brick
bevelled for maintaining the half width at one end and full width at the other.
20. MITRED CLOSER:
It is a brick whose one end is cut splayed or mitred for full width. The angle of
splay vary from 45 to 60 degree.
21. ROWLOCK:

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The head is visible and the long narrow sides are on bottom and top.
22. ROWLOCK STRETCHER:
When the thinner stretcher sides are on bottom and top faces on the sides.
23. SAILOR:
The heads are on top and bottom and the stretcher faces are on the side. Mostly
used for decoration.
24. SOLDIER:
The stretcher side is visible and the heads are at the bottom and top. It is usually
25. BUTTERING:
Placing of mortar in on masonry block with trowel is termed as buttering.
COLOURS OF BRICKS
The colours of bricks as obtained in its natural course of manufacture depend on
the following factors.
 Degree of dryness achieved before burning
 Natural colour of clay and its chemical composition
 Nature of sand used in moulding operation
 Quality of fuel used in burning operation
 Quantity of air admitted to the kiln during burning

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 Temperature at which bricks are brunt
COLOURS OF BRICKS
No. Colour Constituents Present in Clay
1 Black Manganese and large proportion
of iron
2 Bluish Green Alkalies
3 Bright red, dark blue or
purple
Large amount of iron oxide
4 Brown Lime in excess
5 Cream Iron and little lime
6 Red Iron in excess
7 White Pure clay
8 Yellow Iron and magnesia
The artificial colouring of bricks is achieved by adopting one of the following two
methods
1. Addition of colouring material
2. Dipping in colouring liquid
1. Addition of Colouring Material:
In this method the required colouring material is added in brick earth. The bricks
prepared from such earth will present the desired colour. The usual colouring
materials are iron oxides, manganese, French ultramarine, Indian red etc. This
method is adopted when the colouring material is cheap and when it is available
in plenty.
2. Dipping in Colouring Liquid:
In this method an earthenware box which is slightly larger each way than a
common bricks is taken. It is filled nearly to 1/2 depth with liquid which is in the
form of thick paste. The bricks to be coloured are placed on an iron plate and with
a fire underneath they are heated to such an extent that they can be easily
handled. One brick is taken at a time and it is allowed to stay for few seconds in
the box. It is then placed aside to dry.
The colouring liquid is formed by the addition of colouring material to a mixture
of lineseed oil, litharge and turpentine. The proportion of various component of
colouring liquid for different colours.

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COLOURING LIQUID
Component Name of the Colour
Black Blue Dark red Grey
Lineseed oil 1.20 N 570 c.c. 850 c.c. 0.60 N
Lintharge 0.60 N 0.15 N 1.15 N 0.30 N
Turpentine 1.80 N 570 c.c. 850 c.c. 1.20 N
Manganese 1.80 N - - 0.30 N
French ultramarine - 4.50 N - -
Indian red - - 0.15 N -
White lead - - - 0.90 N
Following are the advantage of this method-
1. The bricks which are coloured by this method do not lose their colours,
when exposed to the atmosphere.
2. It can be adopted for expensive colours
3. It is possible to develop a variety of colours cheaply and easily
4. The penetration of colouring liquid in ordinary bricks ia adbout 3 mm or so.
5. This method can be used for brick wall which are already constructed. The
wall surface is carefully cleaned. The colouring liquid is slightly heated and
it is applied on the wall surface with a brush.
SIZE, WEIGHT AND FACTORS AFFECTING QUALITY OF BRICKS
SIZE AND WEIGHT OF BRICKS
The bricks are prepared in various sizes. The custom in the locality is the
governing factor for deciding the size of a brick. Such bricks are not standardized
are known as the traditional bricks.
It bricks are large it is difficult to burn them properly and they become too heavy
to be placed with a single hand. On the other hand if bricks are small more
quantity of mortar is required.
For India a brick of standard size 190 mm x 90 mm x 90 mm is recommended by
BIS. With mortar thickness the size of such a brick becomes 20 mm x 10 mm x 10
mm and it is known as the nominal size of the modular bricks. Thus the nominal
size of brick includes the mortar thickness.
It is found that the weight of 1 m3 of brick earth is about 18 KN. Hence the
average weight of a brick will be about 30 to 35 N.
FACTORS AFFECTING QUALITY OF BRICKS

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Following factors affect the quality of bricks-
 Composition of brick earth
 Preparation of clay and blending of ingredient
 Nature of moulding adopted
 Care taken in drying and stacking of raw or green bricks
 Types of kiln used including type of fuel and its feeding
 Burning and cooling processes
 Care taken in including
It is thus obvious that not only the bricks of different brick fields will have
different strength, but in the same brick field, the bricks of the same batch may
have different strengths.
The average crushing strength and tensile strength of hand moulded bricks are
60000 KN/m2
and 2000 KN/m2
respectively. In practice however the bricks are not
subjected to the tensile stresses.
It may be noted that the strength of brickwork mainly depends on the types of
mortar used and not so much on the individual strength of the bricks.
DIFFERENT CUTS AND ORIENTATIONS OF BRICKS USED IN CONSTRUCTION
1. BRICK ORIENTATION:
(i). HEADER:

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The shorter side or end face of a brick that is exposed is termed as header.
(ii). STRETCHER:
The longer narrow side or face of a brick that is exposed is termed as stretcher.
(iii). ROWLOCK:
The head is visible and the long narrow sides are on bottom and top.
(iv). ROWLOCK STRETCHER:

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When the thinner stretcher sides are on bottom and top faces on the sides.
(v). SAILOR:
The heads are on top and bottom and the stretcher faces are on the side. Mostly
(vi). SOLDIER:
The stretcher side is visible and the heads are at the bottom and top. It is usually
2. DIFFERENT TYPES OF BRICK CUTS
1. CLOSER:

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Closer is the small piece of brick cut lengthwise in such a manner that its one long
face remains uncut and used at the end of masonry wall to maintain bond
pattern.
(i). QUEEN CLOSER (HALF):
When a brick is cut along its length, making it two equal pieces then it is called
queen closer.
(ii). QUEEN CLOSER (QUARTER):
When a queen closer is cut in to two equal pieces then it is called as queen closer
quarter.
(iii). KING CLOSER:
King closer are the portion of a brick obtained by cutting off the triangular piece
between center of one end and the center of one side.
(iv). BEVELLED CLOSER:

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Similar to king closer with the only difference that the whole length of the brick
bevelled for maintaining the half width at one end and full width at the other.
(v). MITRED CLOSER:
It is a brick whose one end is cut splayed or mitred for full width. The angle of
splay vary from 45 to 60 degree.
2. BAT:
The portion of bricks cut across the width is termed as bat.
(i). THREE QUARTER BAT:
It is the form of brick bat having its length equal to three quarter of length of a full
bricks.
(ii). HALF BAT:
If the length of the bat is equal to half the length of the full bricks.
(iii). BEVELED BAT:

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A brick bat is called beveled bat when its width has beveled.
TYPES OF BRICK BONDS
Most commonly used brick bonds are-
1. Header Bond
2. Stretcher Bond
3. English Bond
4. Flemish Bond
1. HEADER BOND:
In this type of bonding all the bricks are laid as headers on the faces. This bond
permit better alignment and it is used for wall curved on plan. The overlap is half
the width of the brick and can be achieved by providing a three quarter bat in
each alternate course at quoins.
2. STRETCHER BOND:
Stretcher bond is the simplest type of brick bond in which all the bricks are laid as
stretchers on the faces. This bond is also called as running bond. In this bond no
header is present hence suitable reinforcement always be provided for
construction of structural bond. The overlap between the bricks is usually a third

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or a quarter of a brick instead of half of a brick. This type of bond not particularly
strong.
3. ENGLISH BOND:
English bond consist of alternate course of header and stretchers. In this English
bond arrangement vertical joints in the header courses come over each other and
the vertical joints in the stretchers course are also in the same line. For the
breaking of vertical joints in the successive course it is essential to place queen
closer after first header in each heading course. The following additional points
should be noted in English bond construction-
1. In this English bond a heading course should never start with a queen closer
as it is liable to get displaced in this position.
2. In the stretcher course the stretchers should have a minimum lap of 1/4th
their length over the header.
3. Walls having their thickness equal to an even number of half bricks i.e. one
brick thick wall, two brick thick wall, three brick thick wall and so on,
present the same appearance on both the faces i.e. a course consisting of
header on front face will show headers on the back face also.
4. In walls having their thickness equal to an odd number of half brick i.e. one
and half brick thick walls or two and half brick thick walls and so on, the
same course will stretcher on one face and headers on the other.
5. In thick walls the middle portion is entirely filled with header to prevent the
formation of vertical joints in the body of the wall.
6. Since the number of vertical joints in the header course is twice the number
of joints in the stretcher course, the joints in the header course are made
are thinner than those in the stretcher course.
4. FLEMISH BOND:

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In Flemish bond each course consist of alternate headers and stretchers. The
alternate headers of each course are centered over the stretchers in the course
below. Every alternate course starts with a header at the corner. For the breaking
of vertical joints in the successive courses, closers are inserted in the alternate
courses next to the quoin header. In walls having their thickness equal to odd
number of half bricks, bats are essentially used to achieve the bond.
Flemish bond is further divided in to two different types namely-
1. Single Flemish Bond
2. Double Flemish Bond
1. Single Flemish Bond-
This bond is a combination of English bond and Flemish bond. In this work the
facing of the wall consists of Flemish bond and the backing consists of English
bond in each course. This type of bonding can not be adopted in walls less than
one and a half brick in thickness. This bond is adopted to present the attractive
appearance of Flemish bond with an effort to ensure full strength in the brick
work.
2. Double Flemish Bond-
In double Flemish bond each course presents the same appearance both in the
front and back elevation. Every course consist of headers and stretchers laid
alternately. This type of bond is beast suited from consideration of economy and
appearance. It enables the one brick wall to have flush and uniform faces on both
sides. This type of bonding is comparatively weaker than English bond.
Other types of brick bonds are-
1. Facing Bond
2. Dutch Bond
3. English Cross Bond

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4. Brick on Edge Bond
5. Raking Bond
6. Zigzag Bond
7. Garden Wall Bond
FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH OF BRICKS
Following factors affecting the strength and quality of bricks-
1. Composition of brick making earth.
2. Preparation of clay and blending of ingredients.
3. Nature of moulding adopted.
4. Care taken in drying and stacking of raw or green bricks.
5. Types of kilns used including types of fuel and its feeding.
6. Burning and cooling process.
7. Care taken in unloading.
It is thus obvious that not only the bricks of different brick field will have different
strength, but in the same brick field, the bricks of the same batch may have
different strength.
The average crushing strength and tensile strength of hand moulded bricks are
60000 kN/m2
and 2000 kN/m2
respectively. The shearing strength of bricks are
not subjected to the tensile stresses.
It may be noted that the strength of brickwork mainly depends on the types of
mortar used and not so much on the individual strength of the bricks.

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COMPOSITIONS OF GOOD BRICK EARTH
In order to get good quality brick, the earth should contain the following
constituents.
 Silica
 Alumina
 Lime
 Iron Oxide
 Magnesia
1. SILICA-
 Good brick earth should contain about 50 to 60% of Silica
 It prevents Cracking, Shrinkage and Warping of raw bricks.
 It also affects the durability of bricks.
 The excess of silica destroys the cohesion between particles and the brick
becomes brittle.
2. ALUMINA-
 The percentage of alumina should be in the range of 20 to 30% in a good
brick earth.
 The presence of this constituent imparts plasticity to the clay so that it can
be moulded.
 If present in excess, then the raw bricks shrink and warp during drying.
3. LIME-
 Brick earth should contain about 2 to 5% of lime.
 It prevents shrinkage of raw brick on drying.
 It helps to lower the fusion temperature.

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 It cause silica in clay to melt on burning and thus helps to bind it.
 The excess of lime causes the bricks to melt and brick looses its shape.
4. IRON OXIDE-
 A good brick earth should contain about 5 to 7% of Iron oxide.
 It gives red colour to the bricks.
 It improves impermeability and durability.
 It gives strength and hardness.
 If present in excess, then the colour of brick becomes dark blue or blackish.
 If the quantity of iron oxide is comparatively less the brick becomes
yellowish in colour.
5. MAGNESIA-
 Good brick earth should contain a small quantity of magnesia about 1%.
 Magnesium in brick earth impart yellow tint to the brick.
 It is responsible for reducing shrinkage.
 Excess of magnesia leads to the decay of bricks.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---
Silica........................................50-60%
Alumina...................................20-30%
Lime.........................................2-5%
Iron oxide.................................5-7%
Magnesia..................................not more than 1%
HARMFUL INGREDIENTS IN BRICKS AND THEIR EFFECTS
Following are the ingredients which are undesirable in the brick material-
 Lime
 Alkalies
 Pebbles
 Iron pyrites
 Vegetation and Organic matter
1. LIME
 If lime in brick earth present in excess, it causes the brick to melt and hence
brick looses its shape.

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 If lime is present in the form of lumps, then it is converted into quick lime
after burning. This quick lime slakes and expands in presence of moisture,
causing splitting of bricks into pieces.
2. ALKALIES
 Alkalies exist in the brick in the form of soda and potash
 Alkalies present in the brick earth lower the fusion temperature abnormally
as a result of which the brick deforms and twist.
 Alkalies remaining in bricks will absorb water from the atmosphere. When
the moisture gets evaporated leaving grey or white deposits on wall surface
(efflorescence) which affects the appearance of the building structure.
3. PEBBLES
 It prevents mixing of clay thoroughly and uniformly, which results in weak
and porous bricks.
 Bricks containing pebbles will not break into shapes as per requirements.
4. IRON PYRITES
 If the iron pyrites present in brick earth causes the brick to get crystallized
and disintegrated during burning, because of the oxidation of the iron
pyrites.
5. VEGETATION AND ORGANIC MATTER
 The presence of vegetation and organic matter in brick earth assists in
burning. But if such matter is not completely burnt, the bricks become
porous. This is due to the fact that the gasses will be evolved during the
burning of the carbonaceous matter and it will result in the formation of
small pores.
MANUFACTURING OF CLAY BRICKS
Manufacturing of clay bricks includes following steps-
 Preparation of brick earth
 Moulding of bricks
 Drying of moulded bricks
 Burning of bricks
TESTS TO JUSTIFY BRICK QUALITY
To know the quality of bricks following tests can be performed-
 Water Absorption test
 Crushing strength test

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 Hardness test
 Shape and size
 Color test
 Soundness test
 Structure of brick
 Efflorescence Test
1. WATER ABSORPTION TEST-
This test is conducted on brick to find out the amount of moisture absorbed by
brick under extreme condition. In this test a sample of dry brick are taken and
weighed and immersed in fresh water at a temperature of 27'C for a period of 24
hours. After 24 hours the specimen taken out and wiped with cloth. The weight of
sample in wet condition is taken, the difference in weight indicates the amount of
water absorbed by brick. For a good quality brick the amount of water absorption
should not exceed 20 percent of weight of dry brick.
M1- Weight of dry brick
M2- Weight of wet brick
2. CRUSHING STRENGTH TEST-
This test is done to know the load carrying capacity of brick under compression.
The brick specimen immersed in water for 24 hours, remove the specimen and

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drain out surplus moisture at room temperature. The frog of the brick is filled
with cement mortar (1:3) and stored in damp jute bag for 24 hours and immersed
in clean water for 24 hours. The specimen is placed in compression testing
machine and load is applied axially at the uniform rate of 14N/mm2
till failure
occurs and note the maximum load at failure. For a good quality brick the
crushing value should not be less than 105 kg/cm2
.
3. HARDNESS TEST-
In this test a scratch is made on brick surface with the help of finger nail. If no
impression is left on the surface, the brick is sufficient hard.
4. SHAPE AND SIZE TEST-
In this test 20 bricks of standard size are randomly selected and stacked along
lengthwise, widthwise and heightwise. Bricks are closely inspected to check it
should be of standard size and truly rectangular with sharp edges
5. COLOR TEST-
A good quality brick should posses bright and uniform color throughout its body.
6. SOUNDNESS TEST-
In this test two bricks are taken randomly and struck with each other they should
produce clear ringing sound.
7. STRUCTURE OF BRICK-
In this test a brick is broken and closely observed. It should be homogeneous,
compact and free from defects such as lumps, holes etc.
8. EFFLORESCENCE TEST-

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This test is used to find out the presence of soluble salts in brick. In this test a
brick is immersed in fresh water for 24 hours. It is then taken out from water and
allowed to dry in shade. If white and grey layer is not visible on brick surface it
indicates absence of soluble salts and useful for construction. If the whitish layer
visible about 10% of brick surface then the presence of alkalies is in acceptable
range. If that is about 50% of surface then it is moderate. If the alkalies presence
is over 50% then the is severely affected by alkalies.

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Building Construction
TYPES OF RCC BEAMS
Beam can be defined as a structural member which is normally placed horizontal.
It provide resistance to bending when loads are applied on it. There are various
types materials used for construction of beam such as steel, aluminum, wood etc.
But RCC (Reinforced Cement Concrete) is most commonly used material for
construction of beam.
TYPES OF RCC BEAMS
Depending upon their supporting system RCC beam can be classified in to four
categories as follows-
1. Simply Supported Beam
2. Continuous Beam
3. Semi-Continuous Beam
4. Cantilever Beam
5. T- Beam
1. SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM
The simply supported beam contains only a single span which is supported by two
supports at both ends. This beam also called simple beam.
2. CONTINUOUS BEAM
This types of beam has more than two span and has more than three supports
along its length in one straight line.

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3. SEMI-CONTINUOUS BEAM
This types of beams does not have more than two span and three supports.
4. CANTILEVER BEAM
This types of beam has only one support in one end, other end is free.
5. T-BEAM
When floor slabs and beams are poured simultaneously producing a monolithic
structure where where the portion of the slab at both side of the beam serves as
flange of T beam. The beam below the slab serves as the web member and is
sometimes called stem.

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STANDARD SIZE OF ROOM IN A RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS
TYPES OF ROOMS IN A RESIDENTIAL BUILDING AND THEIR STANDARD SIZE
1. LIVING ROOM

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 Small- 12x18ft (3.4X5.4m)
 Medium- 16x20ft (4.8x6.0m)
 Large- 22x28ft (6.6x8.4m)
2. MASTER BEDROOM
 Small- 12x14ft (3.6x4.2m)
 Medium- 14x20ft (4.2x6.0m)
 Large- 16x24ft (4.8x7.2m)
3. BEDROOM
 Small- 10x10ft (3.0x3.0m)
 Medium- 12x12ft (3.6x3.6m)
 Large- 14x16ft (4.2x4.8m)
4. DINING ROOM
 Small- 10x12ft (3.0x3.6m)
 Medium- 12x16ft (3.6x4.2m)
 Large- 14x18ft (4.2x4.8m)
5. KITCHEN
 Small- 5x10ft (1.5x3.0m)
 Medium- 8x13ft (2.5x3.9m)
 Large- 10x12ft (3.0x3.6m)
6. BATHROOM (MASTER BEDROOM)
 Small- 6x7ft (1.8x2.7m)
 Large- 8x12ft (2.5x3.6m)
7. BATHROOM (COMMON BEDROOM)
 Large- 7x12ft (2.1x3.6m)
8. DRESSING ROOM
 Large- 6x6ft (1.8x1.8m)
9. FOYER
 Small- 5ft Wide (1.5m)
 Medium- 6ft Wide (1.8m)
 Large- 8ft Wide (2.5m)

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10. STORE ROOM
 Large- 10x10ft (3.0x3.0m)
11. PANTRY
 Large- 4x6ft (1.2x1.8m)
12. OFFICE ROOM
 Small- 8x10ft (2.5x3.0m)
 Medium- 10x12ft (3.0x3.6m)
 Large- 12x14ft (3.6x4.2m)
13. STUDY ROOM
 Small- 10x10ft (3.0x30.m)
 Medium- 12x12ft (3.6x3.6m)
 Large- 14x16ft (4.2x4.8m)
14. GUEST BEDROOM
 Small- 10x12ft (3.0x3.6m)
 Medium- 12x14ft (3.6x4.2m)
 Large- 14x18ft (4.2x4.8m)
15. GUEST BATHROOM
 Large- 7x12ft (2.1x3.6m)
16. GARAGE
 Small- 12x20ft (3.6x4.2m)
 Medium- 20x20ft (6.0x6.0m)
 Large- 24x24ft (7.2x7.2m)
17. LAUNDRY
 Large- 8x10ft (2.5x3.0m)
ELEMENTS OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

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COMMON BUILDING COMPONENTS
SUPER STRUCTURE
The super structure is that part of the building which is above the ground and
which serve the purpose of buildings intended use. It includes-
 Plinth
 Wall
 Coulums
 Arches
 Roofs & Slabs
 Lintel
 Chajjas
 Parapet
 Stairs & Steps
SUBSTRUCTURE
The substructure is the lower portion of the building which is located below
ground level which transmits the load of the superstructure to the sub soil. It
includes-
 Foundation
NOMINAL DIMENSIONS OF BUILDING COMPONENT

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Building Component Nominal Dimensions
Plinth (Height) 30, 45, 60, 75, 90 cm
Wall (Thickness)
Partition Wall
Load bearing Wall
10 cm
20, 30, 40 cm
Lintel (Thickness) 15 cm
Lintel (Height) 2.0 m from floor level
Chajja Projection 30, 45, 60, 75, 90 cm
Slab (Thickness) 0.1-0.15 m
Parapet Wall (Thickness) 10 cm
Parapet Height 1 m
Door (Width) 0.8, 0.9, 1.0, 1.2 m
Door (Height) 1.8, 2.0, 2.1 m
Sill Height 0.07-0.1 m
Column Size
Square 20x20, 30x30 cm
Rectangular 20x30 cm
Circular 20Ф, 30Ф
Column Footing 1x1x1m below ground
Depth of Beam 30, 45, 60 cm
Steps
No. of risers = Height of Ceiling+
Slab thickness/ Riser height
No. of Treads= No. of Risers-1
Riser Height 15-20 cm
Tread Width 25, 30, 35 cm
Width of steps Minimum 1 m
DIFFERENT TYPES OF BUILDINGS
A building is a man made structure with a roof and walls standing more or less
permanently in one place such as house or factory. Buildings are classified in to
two categories-
(A). Based on Occupancy
(B). Based on types of Construction

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A. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON OCCUPANCY
1. Residential Buildings
2. Industrial Buildings
3. Educational Buildings
4. Institutional Buildings
5. assembly Buildings
6. Business Buildings
7. Mercantile Buildings
8. Storage Buildings
9. Hazardous Buildings
RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS
Buildings in which sleeping arrangement are provided with or without cooking
arrangement. It includes single or multi family dwelling, apartments, lodgings,
restaurant, hostels, dormitories and hotels.
INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS
These are buildings where products or materials of all kinds and properties are
fabricated, assembled, manufactured or processed.
EDUCATIONAL BUILDINGS
These includes any buildings used for schools, colleges, education purposes.
INSTITUTIONAL BUILDINGS
These buildings used for different purposes such as medical or other treatment.
They includes hospitals, sanatorium, jails, asylum.
ASSEMBLY BUILDINGS

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These are the buildings where group of peoples meet or gather for amusement,
social, religious, political, civil travel and similar purposes. E.g. theaters, motion
pictures, house, assembly halls, restaurants assembly halls.
BUSINESS BUILDINGS
These buildings are used for transactions of business, for keeping accounts and
for similar other purpose.
MERCANTILE BUILDINGS
These buildings are used as shops, stores, market for display and sale of
merchandise either wholesale or retail, office, shops, storage services.
STORAGE BUILDINGS
These buildings are used primarily for the storage or sheltering of goods, wares or
merchandise, vehicles and animals, grains.
HAZARDOUS BUILDINGS
These buildings are used for the storage, handling, manufacturing or processing of
highly combustible or explosive materials or products.
B. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON STRUCTURES
1. Framed Structure
2. Load Bearing Structure
FRAMED STRUCTURE
Reinforced cement concrete structures the most common type of construction
today. They consist of a skeleton of beams and columns. The load is transferred
from from beams to the columns and column intern transfer the load directly to
the sub soil through footing. Framed structures are suitable for multistory
building subjected to variety of extreme loads like compressive, tensile torsion,
shear along with moment. The open space in the skeleton are to be filled with
brick walls or glass panels.
LOAD BEARING STRUCTURE
In this type of structures loads from roof slab or trusses and floors are transmitted
through walls to the firm soil below the ground. This types of structures are
adopted where hard strata are available at shallow depth. The structural
elements like beams, slabs rest directly on the walls.
TYPES OF LOADS ON STRUCTURE

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The different types of loads coming on the foundation of a structure are described
below-
1. Dead Load
2. Live Load
3. Wind Load
4. Snow Load
5. Earthquake Load
6. Erection load
1. DEAD LOAD
Dead load comprises of the weight of all walls, partitions, floors, and roof
including all other permanent construction in the building.
2. LIVE LOAD
Live load consist of moving or variable loads due to people or occupants, their
furniture, temporary stores, machineries.
3. WIND LOAD
It is considered as basic wind pressure which is equivalent static pressure in the
direction of the wind.
Wind Pressure = kV2
Where k= co-efficient 0.006
V= wind velocity
Wind pressure always acts in the vertically exposed surface of the walls and
columns.
4. SNOW LOAD
Actual load due to snow depends upon the shape of the roof and its capacity to
retain the snow. The load due to snow may be assumed to be 2.5kg/m3 per cm
depth of snow.
5. EARTHQUAKE LOAD
An earthquake load produced waves in every possible direction below ground. As
per intensity or scale of earthquake, jerk and shocks are acting on the earth. As
per the location of the building in the prescribed zone of earthquake coefficients
of earthquake loads are decided.
6. ERECTION LOAD

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All loads required to be carried by the structure or any part of it due to storage or
positioning of construction material and erection equipment including all loads
due to operation of such equipment shall be considered as erection load.
DAMP-PROOFING
In order to prevent the entry of damp or moisture in the building the damp-
proofing courses (D.P.C) are provided at various levels of entry of damp in to a
building. At present practically all the buildings are given the treatment of damp-
proofing. Thus the provision of D.P.c prevent the entry of moisture from walls,
floors, and basement of a building. Following are the various causes of dampness
in a building:
 Rising of moisture from the ground
 Rain travel from wall tops
 Rain beating against external walls
 Condensation
 Poor drainage, imperfect orientation, imperfect roof slope, defective
construction etc.
The ideal damp proofing material have the following characteristics:
1. It should be perfectly impervious
2. It should be durable

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3. It should be strong and capable of resisting superimposed load coming on
it.
4. It should be flexible so that it can accommodate the structural movements
without any fracture.
5. It should remain steady in its position when once applied
6. It should not be costly.
The materials commonly used for damp-proofing are not bitumen, mastic asphalt,
bituminous or asphaltic felts, metal sheets, combination of sheets are felts, stone,
bricks, mortar, cement concrete and plastic sheets.
The following general principles should be kept in mind while providing D.P.C.
1. The damp-proofing course may be horizontal or vertical.
2. The horizontal damp-proof course ahould cover the full thickness of wall,
excluding rendering.
3. The damp-proof course should be so laid that a continous projection is
provided.
4. At junctions and cornersof walls, the horizontal damp-proof course should
be laid continous.
5. The mortar bed supporting the damp-proof course should be even and
levelled and should be free from projections so that the damp proof course
is not damaged.
6. The damp proof course should not be kept exposed on the wall surface
otherwise it may get damaged during finishing work.
7. When a horizontal damp proof course is continued to a vertical face a
cement concrete fillet of about 75 mm radius should be provided at he
junction.
ARCHES- IMPORTANT TECHNICAL TERMS
An arch is a structure constructed to span across an opening. It generally consist
of small wedge-shaped units which are jointed together with mortar.
The important technical terms used in arch work are as follows:
1. Intrados- It is the inner curve of an arch.
2. Soffit- It is the inner surface of an arch. Sometimes intrados and soffit are
used synonymously.
3. Extrados- It is the outer curve of an arch.

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4. Voussoirs- These are wedge-shaped units of masonry forming an arch.
5. Crown- It is the highest point of the extrados.
6. Skew back- It is the inclined or splayed surface on the abutment on which
the arch rests.
7. Abutment- It is the part of the wall on which the arch rest. In other words it
is the end support of an arch.
8. Key stone- It is the wedge--shaped unit at the crown of an arch.
9. Springer- It is the voussoir next to skew back.
10.Springer line- It is an imaginary line joining the lowest parts of springer.
11.Haunch- It is the bottom portion of an arch between the skew back and
crown.
12.Span- It is the clear horizontal distance between the supports.
13.Pier- It is an intermediate support of an arch.
14.Rise- It is the clear vertical distance between the springing line and the
highest point on the intrados.
15.Depth or height- It is the perpendicular distance between the intrados and
extrados.
16.Thickness or breatdth of sofit- It is the horizontal distance measured
perpendicular to the front and back faces of an arch.
STAIRS- COMMON TECHNICAL TERMS

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A stair is a sequence of steps provided to afford the means of ascent and decent
between the floors or landing. The apartment or room of a building in which the
stair is located is known as a staircase and the opening or space occupied by the
stair is known as stairway.
Following are the common technical terms used in connection with the stairs-
Tread- The horizontal upper part of a step on which foot is placed in ascending or
descending a stairway is called tread.
1. Riser- A vertical portion of a step providing a support to the tread is
called riser.
2. Flier- A straight step having a parallel width of tread is called flier.
3. Flight- An unbroken series of steps between two landing is called flight.
4. Landing- A horizontal platform at the top or bottom of a flight between the
floors is calledlanding. It facilitates change of direction and provides an
opportunity for taking rest during the use of the stair.
5. Rise- The vertical distance between two successive tread faces is called rise.
6. Going- The horizontal distance between two successive riser face is
called going.
7. Nosing- The projecting part of the tread beyond the face of riser is
called nosing.
8. Scotia- A moulding provided under the nosing to beautify the elevation of a
step and to provide strength to nosing is called scotia.
9. Soffit- The under surface of a stair is called soffit.

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10.Pitch or slope- The angle which the line of nosing of the stair makes with
the horizontal is called pitch or slope.
11.Strings or stringers- The sloping members which support the steps in a stair
are calledstrings or stringers.
12.Baluster- The vertical member of wood or metal to support the hand rail is
called baluster.
13.Balustrade- The combined frame work of handrail and balusters is known
as balustrade.
14.Hand rail- The horizontal or inclined support provided at a convenient
height is calledhand rail.
15.Newel post- The vertical member placed at the ends of flight connecting
the ends of strings and hand rail is called newel post.
Notes:-
The size of a step commonly adopted for residential building is 250 mm X 160
mm. In hospital etc. the comfortable size of step is 300 mm X 100 mm.
The width of stairs depend upon its location in the building and the types of a
building itself. In a residential building the average value of stair width is 900 mm
while in a public building 1.5 to 1.8 metres width may be required.
The width of landing should be greater than the width of stair.
The pitch of stair should never exceed 40 degree.
In designing a stair a comfortable slopes is achieved when the sum of going and
twice the rise should be equal to 60 approximately.
In designing a stair the product of going and the rise should be equal to 400.
The clear distance between the tread and soffit of the flight immediately above it
should not be less than 2 metres.
An open newel stair consist of two or more straight flights arranged in such a
manner that a clear space occurs between the background and forward flights.
In wooden stairs the thickness of tread is adopted as 38 mm.

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BUILDING MATERIALS
BUILDING MATERIALS
List of building materials.......
1. Brick
2. Cement
3. Sand
4. Coarse Aggregate
5. Concrete
6. Reinforcement

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7. Mortar
8. Wood
9. Tiles
10. Glass
11. Plastic
12. Paint
REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD AGGREGATE
Following are the desirable properties and requirement of a good aggregate-
 Adhesion
 Cementation
 Durability
 Hardness
 Shape
 Strength
 Toughness
ADHESION:
A good aggregate should have adhesive property, it should have sufficient binding
capacity with binder. If this quality is absent in the aggregate, it will lead to the
separation of bituminous and cement coating in the presence of water.
CEMENTATION:
The binding quality of the aggregate depends on its ability to form its own binding
material under different loading so as to make the rough broken stone pieces grip
together to resist displacement
DURABILITY:

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A good aggregate should be sufficiently durable, it should be sufficiently resistant
to weathering agencies and is largely dependent upon its petrological
composition. This requirement of aggregate is essential so that it can resist the
effect of weathering agencies like rain, frost, variation of temperature etc. in
order to achieve long life of the structures.
HARDNESS:
A good aggregate should be sufficiently hard, it should offer maximum possible
resistance to abrasion and attrition. The road aggregate should be hard enough to
resist abrasion due to grinding of pieces of stones against each other.
SHAPE:
The shape of aggregates may be rounded, cubical, angular, flaky or elongated.
The flaky and elongated aggregates possess less strength and durability and they
are not used in construction work as far as possible. The rounded aggregates are
preferred in cement concrete construction. They are unsuitable in W.B.M
construction, bituminous construction, and in granular base course because their
stability due to interlocking is less. The angular aggregates are used for such types
of construction work.
STRENGTH:
The good aggregates should be sufficiently strong to withstand the stresses
developed due to the wheel load of traffic. This property is especially desirable for
the road aggregates which are to be used in top layer of the pavements. Thus the
wearing course of road should be composed of aggregates which posses enough
strength in addition to enough resistance to crushing.
TOUGHNESS:
A good aggregate quite tough, it should offer the maximum possible resistance to
the hammering effect of wheel load. This is essential so that the aggregate used in
the construction of pavement can resist the impact caused due to movement of
heavy traffic load without breaking into smaller pieces.
PROPERTIES OF GOOD PRESERVATIVE FOR TIMBER
The preservatives used to protect the timber should contain following
requirements or properties-
 It should be effortlessly and cheaply available.

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 It should not contain any harmful substances, gases etc.
 It should cover larger area with small quantity.
 It should be economical.
 It should not contain any unpleasent smell.
 It should not get affected by light, heat, water etc.
 It should not get affected by fungi, insects etc and should also efficient to
kill them.
 It should not generate flame when contact with fire.
 It should not corrode metals when it makes a contact with them.
 Decorative treatment or any surface treatment should be allowed on
timber after the application of preservatives.
 The depth of penetration of preservatives in wood fibers should be
minimum 6mm to 25mm.
QUALITIES OF GOOD TIMBER
Following are the characteristics or qualities of a good timber:

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1. APPEARANCE: A freshly cut surface of timber should exhibit hard and
shining appearance.
2. COLOUR: The colour of timber should preferably be dark. The light colour
usually indicates timber with low strength.
3. DEFECTS: A good timber should be free from serious defects such as dead
knots, flaws, shakes, etc.
4. DURABILITY: A good timber should be durable. It should be capable of
resisting the action of fungi insects, chemicals, physical agencies and
mechanical agencies. If wood is exposed to the actions of acid and alkalies
foe a prolonged period it is seriously damaged. The weak alkali and acid
solutions usually do not affect wood to a considerable extent.
5. ELASTICITY: This is the property by which timber returns to its original
shapes when load causing its deformation is removed. This property of
timber would be essential when it is to used for bows, carrying shafts,
sports goods etc.
6. FIBRES: The timber should have straight fibres.
7. FIRE RESISTANT: The timber is a bad conductor of heat. A dense wood
offers good resistant to the fire and it requires sufficient heat to cause a
flame. The heat conductivity of wood is low and it depends on various
factors such as porosity, moisture content, surrounding temperature,
orientation of fibres, bulk densdity etc.
8. HARDNESS: A good timber should be hard i.e. it should offer resistant when
it is being penetrate by another body. The chemicals present in heart wood
and density of wood impart hardness to the timber. The mere resistance
offered to chisel or saw does not usually indicate hardness of timber.
9. MECHANICAL WEAR: A good timber should not deteriorate easily due too
mechanical wear or abrasion. This property of timber would be essential for
places where timber would be subjected to traffic e.g. wooden floors,
pavements etc.
10.SHAPE: A good timber should be capable of retaining its shape during
conversion or seasoning. It should not bow or warp or split.
11.SMELL: A good timber should have sweet smell. An unpleasant smell
indicates decayed timber.
12.SOUND: A good timber should give out a clear ringing sound when struck. A
dull heavy sound when struck indicates decayed timber. The velocity of

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sound in wood is 2-17 times greater than that in air and hence the wood
may be considered high in sound transmission. The sound conductivity is
faster along the fibres is lower in the radial direction and is slowest along
the chord of a cross-section.
13.STRENGTH: A good timber should be strong for working as structural
member such as joist, beam, rafter etc. It should be capable of taking loads
slowly or suddenly. It should also possess enough strength in direct and
transverse directions.
14.STRUCTURE: It should be uniform. The fibres should be firmly added. The
medullary rays should be hard and compact. The annual rings should be
regular and they should be closed located.
15.TOUGHNESS: A good timber should be tough i.e. it should be capable of
offering resistant to the shocks due to vibrations. This property of timber
would be essential when it is to be used for tool handles, parts of motor
cars and aeroplanes etc.
16.WATER PERMEABILITY: A good timber should have low water permeability
which is measured by the quality of water filtered through a unit surface
area of specimen of wood. The water permeability is greater along the
fibres than in other directions and it depends on initial moisture content,
character of cut, type of wood, width of annual rings, age of wood etc.
17.WEATHERING EFFECTS: A good timber should be able to stand reasonably
the weathering effects. When timber is exposed to weather its colour
normally fades and slow turns grey. A good timber should show the least
disintegration of the surface under adverse weather conditions such as
drying and wetting, extreme heat and extreme cold etc.
18.WEIGHT: The timber with heavy weight is considered to be sound and
strong.
19.WORKING CONDITION: The timber should be easily workable. It should not
clog the teeth of saw and should be capable of being easily planed or made
smooth.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF PRESERVATIVES FOR TIMBER

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1. COAL TAR
The timber surface is coated with hot coal tar with the help of brush. The coal
tar becomes workable when heated. The process is known as the tarring. The
coal tar has unpleasant smell and appearance. It makes timber unsuitable for
painting. Hence the tarring is adopted for frames of doors and windows, rough
timber work etc. and it is found to be most useful for parts embedded in
ground because of its cheapness and effective resistance. The coal tar is fire
resistant.
2. ASCU
The ascu is special preservative which is developed at the Forest Research
Institute Dehradun. Its composition is as follows-
(a). Part by weight of hydrated arsenic pentoxide, (As2O5, 2H2O)
(b). Part by weight of blue vitriol or copper sulphate, (CuSO4, 5H2O)
(c). Part by weight of potassium dichromate, (K2Cr2O7) or sodium dichromate
(Na2Cr2O7, 2H2O)
This material is available in powder form. To prepare a solution of this
material, six parts by weight of ascu are mixed in 100 parts by weight of water.
The solution is then sprayed or applied on timber surface. This preservative
gives timber protection against the attack of white ants. The surface treated
with this preservative can be painted, polished, varnished or waxed. The
solution is odourless.
3. CHEMICAL SLATS
These are water borne preservatives and they are mostly salts dissolved in
water. The usual salts used are copper sulphate, mercury chloride, sodium
fluoride and zinc chloride. The solutions are prepared from these salts and

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they are applied on the timber surface can be painted or varnished after
drying. These preservatives have good penetration and the timbers treated
with these preservatives will show an immediate increase in weight of 2400 to
4800 N per m3
. After drying the net increase in weight will come down to
about 50 to 300 N per m3
.
4. OIL PAINTS
The timber surface is coated with 2 or 3 coats of oil paint. The wood should be
seasoned. Otherwise sap will be confined and it will lead to the decay of
timber. The oil paints preserve timber from moisture and make it durable.
5. SOLIGNUM PAINTS
These paints preserve timber from white ants as they are highly toxic in
nature. They can be mixed with colour pigments and applied in hot state with
the help of brush. The timber surface may therefore be given the desired
colour or appearance.
6. CREOSOTE OIL
In this case the timber surface is coated with creosote oil. The process is
known as the creosoting or Bethel's method of preservation of timber. The
creosote oil is obtained by the distillation of tar. The creosoting is carried out
as follows-
(a). The timber is thoroughly seasoned and dried.
(b). It is then placed in an air tight chamber.
(c). The air is pumped out from the chamber.
(d). The creosote oil is then pumped under a high pressure off about 0.70 to 1
N/mm2
and a temperature of about 50*C.
(e). After a period of about 1 to 2 hours when timber has sufficient absorbed
creosote oil it is taken out of chamber.
The creosote oil is one of the best antiseptic substance poisonous for wood
attacking fungi. It is a black or brown liquid weakly affected by water neither
volatile nor hygroscopic, harmless to wood or metal, inflammable, with an
unpleasant odour and having low wood penetrating ability to the extent of 1
mm to 2 mm only.
The creosoting practically doubles the life of timber and it is generally adopted
for piles, poles, railway sleepers, etc. Depending upon the net retention and
type of timber the creosote treated timber will normally increase in weight by
800 to 3200 N per m3
. The creosote oil is highly toxic in nature and gives out

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highly unpleasant smell. The process of creosoting proves to be costly. The
creosote oil should not be used for interior surface of dwelling houses,
foodstuff storage premises, in underground installation and near inflammable
surface.
IMPORTANT BUILDING STONES
The following are important building stone, their composition, properties and
uses:
1. Granite:
It is an igneous rock. It is mainly composed of quartz, felspar and mica. Its specific
gravity is 2.64 and compressive strength varies from 70 to 130 MN/m2. Its colour
depends upon that of felspar which may be brown, grey, green and pink. A fine
grained granite offers high resistance to weathering. It can be easily polished and
worked. It is used for exterior facing of buildings.
2. Slate:
It is an argillaceous rock. It is mainly composed of alumina mixed with sand or
carbonate of lime. Its specific gravity is 2.8 and compressive strength varies from
60 to 70 MN/m2. It has grey or dark blue colour. A good slate is hard, tough and
fine grained. It is suitable for use in cistern. The slate in the form of tiles is used as
an excellent roof covering material.
3. Gneiss:

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It is a silicious rock. It is mainly composed of quartz and felspar. It is more easily
worked than granite. It is a good material for street paving.
4. Sandstone:
It is a sedimentary rock of silicious variety. It is mainly composed of quartz, lime
and silica. Its specific gravity is 2.65 to 2.95 and compressive strength varies from
35 to 40 MN/m2. Its usual colours are white, grey, brown, pink etc. The fine
grained stones are strong and durable. It is suitable for ashlar work, mouldings,
carving etc.
5. Limestone:
It is a sedimentary rock of calcarious variety. Its specific gravity is 2.6. It is
available in brown, yellow and dark grey colours. It is used in large quantities in
blast furnaces. It may be used as stone masonry for wall.
6. Marble:

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It is a metamorphic rock of calcarious variety. Its specific gravity is 2.7 and is
available in many colours. It is very hard and takes a fine polish. It is used for
carving and decoration work.
7. Kankar:
It is very impure lime stone containing 30% of alumina and silica. The hard kankar
is used for foundations of buildings.
8. Laterite:
It is a sandy clay stone containing high percentage of iron oxides. It has a porous
and cellular structure. Its specific gravity, varies from 2 to 2.2. The laterite blocks
are suitable as building stones whereas nodular laterite proves a very good road
metal.
9. Moorum:

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It is a decomposed laterite and has deep brown or red colour. It is used in
surfacing fancy paths and garden walks.
10. Quartzite:
It is a silicious sand stone which has been subjected to metamorphic action. It is
strong and durable. It is used as a road metal or railway ballast or in concrete.
CONCRETE BLOCKS
RAW MATERIALS-
The materials required for the production of the concrete blocks are aggregates,
cement, water.

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The aggregates of various types have been used with varying degree of success
and they include crushed stones, gravels, volcanic cinder, foamed slag, furnace
clinker, etc. The aggregates are selected by considering the weight, texture or
composition of the unit designed. The strength, texture and economy of the
concrete block depend upon the careful grading of the aggregate. If locally
available aggregate is suitable it will help in achieving the economy.
The cement used is ordinary portland cement. The water required is the normal
potable water.
MANUFACTURING-
The fully automatic plants are available for the manufacturing of high strength
concrete blocks. These automatic machines produce superior quality concrete
blocks. But they involves a large capital investment. The manually operated
machines are also available and they can be installed at project site itself which
further reduce the transportation cost of the concrete blocks from the place of
production to the place of actual use.
The process involves in the manufacturing of the concrete blocks are as follows -
1. Selection and proportion of ingredients- The main criteria for the selection
of the ingredients is the desired strength of the block. The greater the
proportion of course aggregate, the greater will be the strength of the
quantity of cement used.
2. Mixing of ingredients- The blending of aggregate, cement and water should
be done very carefully. The mixing should preferably take place in a
mechanical mixer. For hand mixing extreme care should be taken to see

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that the cement and aggregate are first mixed thoroughly in dry state and
the water is then added gradually.
3. Placing and vibration- The mixed concrete material is fed into the mould
box up to the top level and it is ensured that the box is evenly filled. The
vibration of concrete is done till it has uniformly settled in the mould box.
4. Curing- The block is watered after about one day of casting and it is
continued for a minimum of 7 days and preferably till 20 days. The longer
the curing period the better will be the block.
ADVANTAGES-
The use of concrete blocks as a masonry unit can be observed on many
construction sites because of the following advantages-
1. It increases the carpet area of the building of small width of concrete block
as compared to the brick masonry wall.
2. It provide better thermal insulation, enhanced fire resistance and sound
absorption.
3. It results in the saving of precious agricultural land which is used for the
manufacturing of bricks.
4. The blocks can be prepared in such a manner that the vertical joints can be
staggered automatically and thus the skilled supervision is reduced.
5. The construction of concrete block masonry is easier, faster and stronger
than the brick masonry.
6. The perfect shape and size of the concrete block makes the work of a
mason much simpler.
7. There is saving in construction of mortar because the numbers of joints are
reduced.
8. The utility can be further increased by producing the reinforced concrete
blocks (RCB) masonry units. The blocks are provided two holes for placing
suitable reinforcing bars and the structure with RCB units could safely resist
wind and earthquakes if so designed. The traditional beams and columns
can be completely eliminated and the structure with RCB units cane be
given a better appearance.
USE-
In view of the advantages mentioned above, the concrete block masonry
technique of construction can be adopted on a large scale for mass housing and
various civil engineering projects.

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MARKET FORMS OF STEEL
Following are the standard shapes in which the rolled steel sections are available
in the market-
1. Angle sections-
The Angle section may be equal legs or unequal legs. The equal angle sections are
available in sizes varying from 20 mm x 20 mm x 3 mm to 200 mm x 200 mm x 25
mm. The corresponding weight per meter length are respectively 9 N and 736
N. The unequal angle sections are available in sizes varying from 30 mm x 20 mm
x 3 mm to 200 mm x 150 mm x 18 mm. The corresponding weight per meter
length are respectively 11 N and 469 N. The angle section extensively used in the
structural steel work especially in the construction of steel roof trusses and filler
joist floors.
2. Channel Section-
The channel section consist of a web with two equal flanges. A channel section is
designated by the height of web and width of flange. These sections are available
in sizes varying from 100 mm x 45 mm to 400 mm x 100 mm. The corresponding
weights per metre length are respectively 58 N and 494 N. A channel section of
size 300 mm x 100 mm with weight per metre length as 331 N. The Bureau of
Indian Standards has classified channel sections as junior channel, light channel
and medium channel and accordingly they are designated as I.S.J.C, I.S.L.C and

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I.S.M.C respectively. The channel sections are widely used as the structural
members of the steel framed structures.
3. Expanded Metal
This form of steel is available in different shapes and sizes. It is prepared from
sheets of mild steel which are machine cut and drawn out or expanded. A
diamond mesh appearance is thus formed throughout the whole area of the
sheet. The expanded metal is widely used for reinforcing concrete in foundation,
roads, bridges etc. It is also used as lathing material and for partitions.
4. Corrugated Sheets
These are formed by passing steel sheets through grooves. These grooves bend
and press steel sheets and corrugations are formed on the sheets. These
corrugated sheets are usually galvanized and they are referred to as the
galvanized sheets or G I sheets. These sheets are widely used for roof covering.
5. I- Sections

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These are popularly known as the rolled steel joist or beams. It consist of two
flanges connected by a web. It is designated by overall depth width of flange and
weight per meter length. They are available in various sizes varying from 75 mm x
50 mm at 61 N to 600 mm x 210 mm at 995 N. Joist of size 300 mm x 150 mm at
377 N. The wide flange beams are available on sizes varying from 150 mm x 100
mm at 170 N to 600 mm x 250 mm at 1451 N. The beams suitable for columns are
available in H- section which vary in sizes from 150 mm x 150 mm at 271 N to 450
mm x 250 mm at 925 N. The Bureau of Indian Standard has classified the I section
in to junior beams, light beams, medium beams, wide flange beams and heavy
beams and they are accordingly desingated as ISJB, ISLB, ISMB, ISWB and ISHB
respectively.
6. T- Sections
The shapes of this section is like that of letter T and it consist of flange and web. It
is desingated by overall dimensions and thickness. These sections are availble in
sizes varying from 20 mm x 20 mm x 3 mm to 150 mm x 150 mm x 10 mm. The
coressponding weight per meter length are 9 N and 228 N respectively. T section
of size 100 mm x 100 mm x 10 mm with weight per meter length as 150 N. The
special T section with unequal sides bulbs at the bottom edge of web etc are also
available. These sections are widely used as members of steel roof trusses and to
form built up sections.
7. Plates

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The plates section of steels are available in different sizes with thickness varying
from 5 mm to 50 mm. The corresponding weights per square meter are 392 N and
3925 N respectively. They used mainly for the following purposes in the structural
steel works.
 To connect steel beams for extension of the length
 To serve as tension members of steel roof truss
 To form built up sections of steel
8. Ribbed Bars (HYSD Bars)
These bars are produced from the ribbed which is a deformed high strength steel.
These bars have ribs or projection on their surface and they are produced by
controlled cold twisting of hot rolled bars. Each bars is to be twisted individually
and it is tested to conform the standard requirements. These bars are also called
high yield strength deformed (HYSD) bars. the ribbed bars are available in sizes
varying from 6 mm to 50 mm diameter with the corresponding weight per meter
length as 2.22 N and 154.10 N. These bars are widely used as reinforcement in
concrete structures such as buildings, bridge, docks and harbors structures, roads,
irrigation works, piles foundations, pre-cast concrete works etc.
9. Round Bars
These are available in circular cross section with diameter varying from 5 mm to
250 mm. They are widely used as reinforcement in concrete structures,
construction of steel grill work etc. The commonly used cross-sections have

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diameters varying from 5 mm to 25 mm with the corresponding weights per
meter length as 1.50 N and 38 N respectively.
10. Square Bars
These are available in square cross-section with sides varying from 5 mm to 250
mm. They are widely used in the construction of steel grill work for window,
gates, etc. The commonly used cross-section have side varying from 5 mm to 25
mm with corresponding weight per meter length as 2 N and 49 N respectively.
11. Flat Bars
These are available in suitable widths varying from 10 mm to 400 mm with
thickness varying from 3 mm to 40 mm. They are widely used in the construction
of steel grill work for windows and gates.
12. Ribbed mild steel Bars
These are the hot rolled mild steel bars but during rolling steel rods, ribs are
produced on them. These ribs increases the bond strength of bars. Such ribbed
mild steel bars are not recommended in the code but are available in the market.
They looks like high strength ribbed bars but the allowable stresses in these
ribbed mild steel bars are much lower than the HYSD bars. Theses bars should not
be used in RCC work.
13. Thermo-mechanically Treated Bars (TMT Bars)

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Sudden quenching of red hot steel bars by a spray of water can produce steel bars
with high strength at the structure with a core of mild steel. As the core of the
wire is still hot the heat inside helps in tempering the surface. The result is a
structure with tempered martensite on the periphery and a fine grained ferrite
pearlite at the center. The combined strength of these materials raises the yield
point of steel with the high percentage of elongation at ultimate failure. TMT bars
are also rolled with ribs to increase the bond strength.
These are more corrosion resistance than cold twisted bars. Specially TMT-CRS
(Thermo-mechanically Treated Corrosion Resistance Steel bars ) bars are also
available in the market in which high corrosion resistance is achieved by adding
corrosion resistant element like copper, phosphorous and chromium. These bars
are produced in three grades like Fe415, Fe500, Fe550.
14. Cold Twisted Deformed Bars (CTD Bars)
These were the first high strength steel bars introduced in India around 1960.
These bars are first hot rolled out of high grade mild steel with three or more
parallel straight ribs and other indentation on it. After cooling they are twisted by
a separate operation so that the steel is stained beyond the elastic limit and then
released. This operation raises the yield point of steel for subsequent tensile or
compressive stresses. Thus its strength is increased. Normally welding is not in
this type of steel as the strength of steel is increased due to cold working.

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15. Welded Wire Fabrics (WWF Bars)
Welded wire fabric is fabricated from a series of wires arranged at right angles to
each other and electrically welded at all intersections. It is made from medium
tensile steel drawn out from higher diameter mild steel bars. It is much stronger
than mild steel are available in different width rolls. Welded wire fabric has
various uses in reinforeced concrete construction. It is mostly used for floor slabs
on well compacted ground. Heavier fabrics supplied mainly in flat sheets, iis often
also used in walls and for the primary reinforcement in structural floor slabs. It is
also used in road and runway pavements, box culverts and small canal lining.

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CEMENT NOTES
STORAGE OF CEMENT AND PRECAUTIONS TAKEN
The cement should be stored carefully. Otherwise it may absorbed moisture from
the atmosphere and may become useless for the structural work. Following
precaution are to be taken for the storage of cement
(1). Moisture:
If moisture is kept away from cement, it is found that cement will maintain its
quality for indefinite period. An absorption of one to two percent of moisture has
no appreciable effect on quality of cement. But if moisture absorption exceeds
five percent the cement becomes totally useless. Hence when cement is to be
stored for a long period it should be stored in air tight containers.
(2). Period of Storage:
The loose cement may be stored indefinitely in air tight containers. But it is
advisable to avoid storing off cement in jute bags for a period longer than three
months. If it is unavoidable the cement should be tested to ascertain its
properties.
(3). Piles:
The cement bags are stacked in piles. It is economical to form a pile of 10 bags of
cement. A distance of about 300 mm should be kept between the piles of cement
bags and exterior walls of building. The passages of width about 900 mm should
be provided between the piles. For long storage the top and bottom of piles
should be covered with tarpaulins or water proof paper.
(4). Quality of Cement:
The cement which is finely ground is more active and consequently it absorbs
moisture rapidly from the atmosphere. Hence extraordinary precaution should be
taken to store finely ground cement.

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(5). Removal of Cement:
When cement bags are to be removed from piles of sufficient height the steps
should be formed by taking out two or three bags from front piles. It is also
advisable to remove cement in order of its storage period i.e. cement which is
stored previously should be taken out first. In other words the rule of first in, first
out should be followed.
(6). Storage Sheds:
For storing cement for a sufficient long period the storage sheds of special design
should be constructed. The walls, roof and floor of such sheds should be of water
proof construction.
Few small windows should be provided and they should be kept tightly shut. The
floor should be above ground. If necessary the drainage should be provided to
drain water collected in vicinity of such shed. For determining the size of storage
shed it is found that 20 bags or 10 bags of cement will require about 1 m3 of
space.
It should be noted that cement even if stored in the most favorable conditions
loses its activity when stored for a long time. For instance the storage duration of
3 months and 12 months will cause a reduction in the activity of cement to the
extent of about 20 percent and 40 percent respectively.
Hence it is advisable to reactivate the cement stored for prolonged period. The
most effective method of reacting such cement consists in vibro-grinding which
ensure greater fineness and makes cement fit for use.
IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE
The following are the important properties of concrete are to be noted by
designer-
1. Through it consists of different materials like cement, sand and jelly the
intimate mixture is so good that for all practical purposes it may be
assumed as homogeneous.
2. For concrete characteristics strength is defined as compressive strength of
150 mm cube at 28 days in N/mm2
, below which not more than 5 percent
cubes gives the result. Based on the characteristics strength concrete is
graded as given below:
Grades of Concrete

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Group Grade
Designation
Characteristics
Strength (N/mm2
)
Ordinary
Concrete
M10
M15
M20
10
15
20
Standard
Concrete
M25
M30
M35
M40
M45
M50
M55
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
High Strength
Concrete
M60
M65
M70
M75
M80
60
65
70
75
80
Now a days ultra high strength of grade M500 are also produced in the
laboratories amd M250 concrete has been used for the construction of some
bridges. Minimum Grades of concrete for different exposure with
normal weight aggregates of 20 mm nominal maximum size.
S. No. Exposure Minimum Grade of
Concrete
1 Mild M20
2 Moderate M25
3 Sever M30
4 Very Sever M35
5 Èxtreme M40
Stress Strain Relationship: Stress strain curve depend on strength of concrete as
well as on the rate of loading. The sort term stress strain curve is to be obtained
for a constant rate of straining of 0.01 percent per minute or for a constant rate
of stress increases of 14 N/mm2 per minute.
Tensile Strength: A designer may use the following expression for the flexceral
tensile strength of concrete:
Fcr = 0.7√fck N/mm2
Where
fck= Characteristics compressive strength of concrete.

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Modulus of Elasticity: The short term modulus of elasticity for concrete may be
taken
as:
Ec = 5000√fck
Poisson's Ratio: It may be taken as 0.1 for high strength concrete and 0.2 for
weak concrete. Usually it is taken as 0.15 for strength and 0.2 for serviceability
calculations.
Shrinkage: Total amount of shrinkage in concrete depends on the various factors
including the amount of water present at the time of casting. In the absence of
data the approximate value of the total shrinkage strain may be taken as 0.0003.
Creep: It depends on various factors including the age of loading, duration of
loading and stress level. The creep coefficient which is defined as the ratio of
ultimate creep strain to elastic strain at the age of loading may be taken as shown
below:
S. No. Age of Loading Creep Coefficient
1 7 Days 2.2
2 28 Days 1.6
3 1 Year 1.1
SLUMP TEST FOR WORKABILITY OF CONCRETE
Slump test is performed to determined the workability as well as the consistency
of fresh concrete mix at the laboratory or the construction site during the
progress of the work.
APPARATUS:-

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 Mould: The mould used for this test is in the form of the frustum of a cone
with handles and foot pieces. It is made up of steel and also known as
slump cone and Abrams cone. The dimensions of slump cone are: Tod
diameter- 10 cm, Bottom diameter- 20 cm and Height- 30 cm.
 Base Plate: The non porous base plate used in this test are made of steel,
aluminium, polymers etc. The base plate has lifting handles for easy
transportation.
 Tamping Rod: The rod used in this test is made up of steel, usually 60 cm
long and diameter is 1.6 cm and bullet end at one side.
 Measuring Scale: A standard tape is used for measurement.
PROCEDURE:-

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 The slump cone should be thoroughly cleaned and then apply oil to it.
 The base is placed on a smooth surface, set the mould on a horizontal non-
porous and non absorbent base plate.
 Fill the mould fully by pouring freshly mixed concrete in four equal layers
each with an approximate height of 1/4th of mould.
 Each layer is tamped 25 times by tamping rod in a uniform manner over the
cross section of the mould.
 After completely filling the mould excess concrete should be removed and
surface should be leveled with a trowel.
 Now lift the mould slowly and carefully in the vertical direction without
disturbing the concrete cone. It undergoes some subsidence which is called
slump.
 Use the measuring scale to measure the difference level between the
height of the mould and the sample of concrete.
TYPES OF CONCRETE SLUMP:-
 True Slump: After the test when the concrete mass sliding equally
throughout the cone with out disintegration then it is treated as the true
slump.

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 Zero Slump: For very dry and high stiff concrete does not show any
difference after removing the mould. It is the indication of very low water-
cement ratio.
 Collapsed Slump: When the concrete mass collapsed due to very high
water-cement ratio then it is called as collapsed slump.
 Shear Slump: When half of the concrete mass slides down in a inclined
plane then this is known as shear slump. This type of slump is obtained in a
lean concrete mix.
CLASSIFICATION OF CONCRETE MIXES:-
S. No. Slump
Nature of Concrete
Mix
1 No Slump
Stiff and extra stiff
mix
2
From 10 mm to 30
mm Poorly mobile mix
3
From 40 mm to 150
mm Mobile mix
4 Over 150 mm Cast mix
RECOMMENDED SLUMPS OF CONCRETE:-
S. No. Types of concrete Slump
1 Concrete for road construction 20 – 40 mm
2
Concrete for tops of curbs, parapets,
piers, slabs and walls that are
horizontal 40 – 50 mm
3 Concrete for canal linings 70 – 80 mm

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4
Concrete for arch and side walls of
tunnels 90- 100 mm
5 Normal R.C.C. work 80 – 150 mm
6 Mass concrete 25 – 50 mm
7 Concrete to be vibrated 10 – 25 mm
LIMITATIONS OF SLUMP TEST:-
1. It is not suitable for concrete in which maximum size of aggregate exceeds
40 mm.
2. The slump occurs only in case of plastic mixes, not occurs in case of dry
mixes
Different Codes-
ASTM C143- United States
IS:1199-1959- India
EN 12350-2- Europe
PROPERTIES OF CEMENT CONCRETE
Following are the important properties of cement concrete-
(1). Concrete has high compressive strength.
(2). It is free from corrosion and there is no appreciable effect of atmospheric
agents on it.
(3). Its hardens with age and the process of hardening continues for a long time
after the concrete has attained sufficient strength. It is the property of cement
concrete which gives it a distinct place among the building materials.
(4). It is proved to be more economical than steel. This is due to the fact that sand
and pebbles or crushed rock, forming the bulk of cement concrete, to the extent
of about 80-90 % are usually available at the moderate cost. The formwork which

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is of steel or timber can be used over and over again of for other purposes after it
is removed.
(5). It binds rapidly with steel and as it is weak in tension, the steel reinforcement
is placed in cement concrete at suitable place to take up the tensile stress. This is
termed as the reinforced cement concrete or simply R.C.C.
(6). Under the following two conditions it has tendency to shrink.
There is initial shrinkage of cement concrete which is mainly due to the lose of
water through forms, absorption by surface of forms etc.
The shrinkage of cement concrete occurs as it hardens. This tendency of cement
concrete can be minimized by proper curing of concrete.
(7) It has tendency to be porous. This is due to the presence of voids which are
formed during and after its placing. The two precaution necessary to avoid this
tendency are as follows:
There should be proper grading and consolidating of its aggregates.
The minimum water cement ratio should be adopted.
(8). It forms a hard surface, capable of resisting abrasion.
(9). It should be remembered that apart from other materials, the concrete comes
to the site in the form of raw materials only. Its final strength and quality depends
entirely on local conditions and persons handling it. However the materials of
which concrete is composed may be subjected to rigid specifications.

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CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENTS
TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENTS
Construction equipment can be categorized as follows-
A. EARTH MOVING EQUIPMENT
1. Excavators
2. Graders
3. Loaders
4. Skid loaders
5. Crawler loader
6. Back hoe
7. Bulldozers
8. Trenchers
9. Scrapers
10.Shovels
B. MATERIAL HANDLING EQUIPMENT
1. Crane

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2. Conveyors
3. Hoist
4. Forklifts
C. CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT
1. Concrete Mixers
2. Compactors
3. Pavers
4. Road Rollers
D. CONSTRUCTION VEHICLE
1. Tippers
2. Dumpers
3. Trailers
4. Tankers
E. TUNNELING EQUIPMENT
1. Road Headers
2. Tunnel boring machine
F. OTHER CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT
CONSTRUCTION TOOLS AND THEIR USES
1. HOE:
A hoe is a tool used to digging soil and to place cement mortar, concrete in head
pan.

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2. PICK AXE:
It is a hand tool with hard metal head and wooden handle. This tool is used to
excavate the soil. It is more suitable for hard soil which is quite difficult to dig with
spade or hoe.
3. SPADE:
A spade is tool contains metal plate at the end of long wooden handle. It is used
to dig the soil for foundation trenches etc.
4. DIGGING BAR:
A digging bar is a long straight solid metal rod with pin shape at the bottom used
to dig the hard surfaces of ground.
5. MEASURING BOX:

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Measuring box is used to measure the quantity of cement, sand and aggregates
used for making concrete mix. The volume of measuring box is generally 1 cum
feet which makes it easy to measure concrete ratio. The general dimensions of
measuring box are 300 x 300 x 400 mm.
6. HEAD PAN:
Head pan is commonly used in construction sites made of iron or plastic. It is used
to lift excavated soil or cement or concrete to the working site.
7. MASONRY TROWEL:
The masonry trowel is used in brick work or stone work spreading, leveling and
shaping mortar or concrete. It is made up of steel and wooden handle is provided
for holding. The ends of trowel may be pointed or bull nosed.
8. FLOAT:

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It is made up of wood contains handle on its top and smooth surface on its
bottom. Float is used to give a smooth finish to the plastered area.
9. WHEEL BARROW:
A wheel barrow is a small hand propelled vehicle with one wheel designed to be
pushed by a single person using two handle at the rear. It is used to transport bulk
weight of materials like cement, sand, mortar, concrete etc.
10. PLUMB BOB:
A plumb bob is a weight with pointed tip at the bottom, suspended from a string
and used as a vertical reference line or plumb line. It is used to check verticality of
structures. It is also used in surveying to level the instrument position.
11. CONCRETE MIXER:

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A concrete mixer is a device that homogeneously mixes cement, aggregates such
as sand or gravels and water to form concrete. A typical concrete mixer uses a
revolving drum to mix the components.
12. CROWBAR:
Crow bars are commonly used to open nailed wooden crates, remove nails, or pry
apart board.
13. BRICK HAMMER:
Brick hammer has one flat traditional face and a short or long chisel shaped blade.
It is used to cut the bricks and also used to push the bricks if they come out from
the course line.
14. CHISEL:
A chisel is a tool that has a long metal blade with a sharp edge at the end and a
handle which is struck with a hammer or mallet. It is generally used in wood work
and must be useful to remove the concrete bumps or excess concrete in

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harden surface.
15. LINE AND PINS:
A line pin is a metal rod usually with a pointed, leaf shaped blade and and a flat
button head. Lines are typically found in pairs as they are commonly used as
anchor points for a brick line. It is used to level the alignment of bricks course
while brick laying.
16. MEASURING TAP:
It is a common measuring tool consist of a ribbon of clothe, plastic, fiber glass or
metal strip with linear measurement marking. It is used to check the thickness,
length, widths of masonry walls, foundation beds, excavated trenches etc.
17. RUBBER BOOTS:

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Safety rubber boots are required to protect legs may have damaged due to
contact with chemical materials like cement or physical accidents during the
construction work.
18. GLOVES:
Gloves are required to prevent the hands from direct contact with cement, paints
etc. and to avoid injury while using machines, tools etc. Gloves made from lather,
cotton, synthetic, nitrile, latex, PVC or combinations of these.
19. HAND SAW:
Hand saw is used to cut wood materials like doors, windows etc.
20. LADDER:
A ladder is a vertical or inclined set of rugs or steps. It is also required in
construction works to check the slab work, to transport material to the higher

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floor, to paint the walls etc.
21. TILE CUTTER:
Tile cutters are used to cut the tiles to a required shape and size. Sometimes
normal size of tiles is larger than the size required at the corners where the floor
meets the wall in that case tile cutter is useful.
22. PUTTY KNIFE:
Putty knife is used to level the putty finishing and also used to reduce the
thickness of finish when it is more thick.
23. DRILL MACHINE:
Drill machine is used to make holes in the walls, slabs, doors, window frames etc.
24. JACK PLANE:

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Jack plane is used in the wooden work to smoothen the surface of doors,
windows etc.
25. MASON SQUARE:
Mason square is used to achieve perfect right angle at the corner of masonry wall.
It is L shaped. First course is laid properly using mason square then based on first,
remaining layers of bricks are set out.
26. MEASURING WHEEL:
Measuring wheel is used to measure the distances or lengths. It contains a wheel
of known diameter which record the number of complete revolutions from which
distance can be measured. It makes the work easier.
27. EARTH RAMMER:

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An earth rammer is a hand tool consist of big square shaped block with handle.
Sometimes it is also called tamper. It is used in construction industries to
compress or compact earth or soil. The earth rammer creates a solid, compacted
layer of earth by compressing the soil repeatedly with its weight.
28. SAFETY GLASSES:
Safety glasses should be used to protect the eye from dust, chemical action of
materials etc.
29. SAFETY HELMET:
The safety helmet is regarded one of the basic safety device required for workers
in several industrial and construction related sectors in addition to industries likes
mining's, petroleum, refineries and so on. If any material for structure may fall
from height during construction work, it protects the head from injury or any fatal
accident.
30. SCRATCHER:

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Plastering of a surface is carried out layer wise, minimum two layer are necessary
for plastering. To provide a good bond between the old and new layer, old layer is
scratched with the help of tool called scratcher.
31. SAND SCREEN MACHINE:
The sand screen machine is used to screen the sand or fine aggregate before
mixing it with concrete. It should remove the impurities and coarse particles from
sand.
32. SPIRIT LEVEL:
A spirit level is an instrument designed to indicate whether a surface is horizontal
or vertical. It is made up of wood or hard plastic with bubble tube in the middle
which is partially filled with alcohol so the air bubble is formed in it. It is used in
brick masonry, plastering, flooring and tile work to check the horizontal level of
surface. The surface is leveled if the air bubble settles at the middle of the tube.
33. POLISHER:

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A polisher is a device used to smoothen the rough surfaces of tiles, marble, wood
works etc. The smoothening makes them shine and the process is called polishing.
34. BUMP CUTTER:
A bump cutter is a tool used to leveled the fresh concrete surfaces likes concrete
floors, foundations, pavement etc. This is also called screed.
35. CIRCULAR SAW:
Circular saw is used to cut wood boards, frames etc. It is used when accurate
cutting is required in less time. It is safer then hand saw.
36. FRAMING HAMMER:

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Framing hammer is used to used to drive and remove nails.
37. VIBRATOR:
A concrete vibrator is a construction tool typically used on construction pouring
sites. The vibrators are used to ensure that the pour is free of air bubbles and are
even. This is so that the concrete remains strong and has a smooth finish even
after removal of the form work.
LIST OF EQUIPMENT USED IN ROAD CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS
(A). PNEUMATIC TOOLS:
1. Air Compressor
2. Rock drill/ Jack hammer/ Steel drill/ Wood drill
3. Concrete Breaker
4. Asphalt Cutter
5. Rock Splitter
6. Compacter
7. Impact Wrenches/ Nail Driver
8. Grinder
9. Concrete Vibrators
10.Backfill Tamper
11.Circular Saw/ Chain Saw
12.Road Broom
(B). ROCK CRUSHER:
1. Jaw Crusher, Double Roll Crusher, Cone Crusher, Hammer Mill
2. Screens
3. Conveyors

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(C). ASPHALT PLANT:
1. Central Mix Plant
2. Hot oil Heater
3. Asphalt Melter
4. Bitumen Distributer
5. Asphalt kettle/ Bitumen Heater
6. Portable Mix Plant
7. Pavers
8. Rotary Sweeper
9. Aggregate Speader
(D). CONCRETE PLANT:
1. Aggregate Batching Plant
2. Concrete Mixer
3. Concrete Pavers
4. Concrete Vibrator
5. Concrete Saw
6. Portable Concrete Curing Machine
(E). EARTH MOVING EQUIPMENT:
1. Dozer
2. Loader/ Shovel
3. Excavator/ Backhoe
4. Scraper
5. Grader
6. Hauler
(F). COMPACTION EQUIPMENT:
1. Sheep foot Roller, Tamping Roller
2. Steel Wheel Vibratory Roller
3. Steel Wheel Static Roller
4. Pneumatic Roller
5. Plate Compactor/ Rammer
(G). ANCILLARY EQUIPMENT:
1. Water Distributer
2. Rotary Tiller Mixer
3. Portable Electric Generator
4. Welding Generator

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5. Crane
6. Pile Driver
7. Water Pump
8. Boring Ring
9. Fork Lift
10.Trucks Flat Bed
11.Low Bed Transporter
EARTH COMPACTING EQUIPMENTS- TYPES OF ROLLERS
Following are the equipments used for the compaction of earth:
1. Smooth Wheel Roller
2. Sheep Foot Roller
3. Pneumatic Roller
4. Tamping Roller
5. Grid Roller
6. Vibratory Roller
1. SMOOTH WHEEL ROLLER:
 This types of roller incorporates a large steel drum at the front and one or
two wheels or drums at the rear.
 If their is one wheel at the rear they are known as Tandem roller, and Three
wheeled roller if there are two wheels at the rear.
 The weight of tandem roller varies from 2-8 tonnes and three wheeled
roller varies from 8-10 tonnes.

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 The ground pressure exerted by tandem roller is typically around 10-17
kg/cm2.
 The weight of roller increased by blasting with sand, water or pig iron.
 Smooth wheel roller are most suitable for consolidating stone, gravel, sand,
hardcore and ballast but are not suitable for embankments, soft sub-grades
or uniform sand.
 The Speed and number of passes of a smooth wheel roller depends on the
types of soil to be compacted and project requirements.
 The optimum working speed has found to be 3-6 km/h and about 8 passes
are adequate for compacting 20 cm layer.
 The smooth wheel roller leaves the surface smooth after compaction.
2. SHEEP FOOT ROLLER:
 Sheep foot roller consist of a steel drum on which round or rectangular
protrusions known as lugs or feet are fixed.
 There are different types of lugs such as spindle shaped with widened base,
prismatic and clubfoot.
 Sheep foot roller are used for compacting fine grained soil such as heavy
clay and silty clay. They are used for compaction of soils in
dam, embankments, sub-grade layers in pavements and rail road
construction projects.
 Coverage area of sheep foot roller is less about 8-12 % because of the boots
on drums.
 Contact pressure of this type roller varies from 1200-7000 Kpa.
 Area of each protrusions in sheep foot roller varies from 30-80 cm2.

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 Generally 10-20 passes are required to provide complete coverage on the
soil and top layer of consolidated soil finished by smooth wheel roller.
Factors that governs the amount of compaction of soil are-
1- Weight of roller
2- Area of each lugs
3- No. of lugs in contact with the ground
4- No. of lugs per drum
3. PNEUMATIC ROLLER:
 Pneumatic roller consist of a heavily loaded wagon with with several rows
of closely spaced tyres. They are also known as rubber tyred roller.
 They provide uniform contact pressure through out the width covered and
are often used in pavement sub-grade works.
 They are suitable for compacting uniform coarse soil and rock. They are
also used to finish embankment compacted by sheep foot roller.
 The factors which affect the amount of compaction that can be achieved
are the weight, tyre inflation pressure and the area of contact.
 Coverage area of pneumatic roller is about 80%.
 Contact pressure of pneumatic roller ranges from 500-700 Kpa.
 The optimum speed of roller is between 6-24 km/h and maximum density
can be achieved by 8 passes of the roller.
 The gross weight of roller 6-10 tonnes which can be increased to 25 tonnes
by ballasting.
4. TAMPING ROLLER:

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 The tamping rollers are similar to sheep foot roller.
 Tamping roller consist of four wheels and one each wheel kneading
boots/feet are fixed.
 These roller also consist of leveling blades to spread the material.
 Tamping roller has more coverage area about 40-50%.
 Contact pressure of tamping roller varies from 1400-8500 Kpa.
 Tamping roller is best dedicated for fine grained soils.
 Tamping roller have static weight in the range of 15-40 tonnes and their
static linear drum loads are between 30-80 kg/cm.
 The degree of compaction achieved is more than sheep foot roller and
density achieved by tamping roller after compaction is more uniform.
5. VIBRATORY ROLLER:
 Vibratory roller have fitted with one or two smooth surfaced steel drums
measuring 0.9-1.5 in diameter and 1.2-1.8 in width.

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 The drum vibrates by the rotation of an electric shaft inside.
 Vibratory roller are commonly used for compacting granular base course
and some times for asphalt.
 Tamping roller have higher output and improved performance compared to
other rollers.
6. GRID ROLLER:
 Grid roller have a cylindrical heavy steel surface comprising a network of
steel bars which form a grid with square shaped holes.
 They are typically used for the compaction of well graded coarse soil and
weathered rocks, often in sub-grades and sub-base road projects.
 They are not suitable for clayey soil, silty clay or uniform soil.
 The weight of grid roller con be increased by ballasting with concrete
blocks.
 Typical weight of grid roller vary between 5.5 tonnes net and 15 tonnes
ballasted.
 This roller provides higher contact pressure but little kneading action.
BULL DOZERS

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These versatile equipments are commonly used in construction projects. It is
essentially a heavy steel blade which is mounted on the front of a tractor. The
tractor can be of the crawler or the wheel type. The heavy blade attached to the
tractors pushes the material from one place to another. Bull dozers are classified
on the basis of:
(A). Position of blades:
1. Bull dozers with blades perpendicular to the direction of movement.
2. Angle dozers in which the blade is set at an angle with the direction of
movement
(B). Based on mountings:
1. Wheel mounted
2. Crawler mounted
(C). Based on the control:
1. Cable controlled
2. Hydraulically controlled
The earth moving bull dozer consist of a heavy blade of somewhat concave
profile. The blade is attached to the body of the tractor with two arms and a
supporting frame. The blade is held at the lower edge on the two heavily built
push arms which are hinged to the track frame of the tractor. The top of the blade
is supported by two brace arms attached to the push arms. The blade is projecting
ahead at the bottom.

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Application-
 Bull dozer are mainly used for the following operations-
 For spreading the earth fill
 For opening up pilot roads through mountainous and rocky terrains
 Clearing construction sites
 Maintaining haul roads
 Clearing land from the trees and stumps
 Back filling trenches at construction sites by dragging the earth from one
place to another.
COMPONENTS OF A CITY ROAD
The following technical terms should be clearly understood before making
detailed study of a road construction.
1. RIGHT OF WAY-
The area of land acquired for construction and future development of a road
symmetrical about the central alignment is called right of way. The width of these
acquired land is known as land width and it depends upon the importance of the
road and possible future development.
2. FORMATION WIDTH-
The top width of the highway embankment or the bottom width of highway
cutting excluding the side drains is called formation width or road way. The

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formation width is the sum of widths of pavements of carriage way including the
separators and width of the shoulders on either side of the carriage way.
3. CARRIAGE WAY-
The portion of the road surface which is used for vehicular traffic is known as
carriage way or pavement. The width of carriage way depends upon the width
and number of lanes. For single lane roads the width of pavement is generally
kept 3.75 m.
4. CROWN-
The highest point on the road surface is called crown.
5. CAMBER OR CROSS SLOPE-
The rise of the center of the carriage wway about its edges along the straight
portion of a road is called camber or cross slope. The transverse slope of the
pavement is provided for the drainage of rainwater. The amount of camber for
the roads is decided according to the road surface and the amount of rainfall.
6. SEPARATOR OR DIVIDER-
The narrow continuous structure provided for dividing the two directions of the
traffic flow is known as separator or divider.
7. SHOULDERS-
The portion of the roadway between the outer edges of the carriage way and
edge of the top surface of the embankment or inner edge of the side drains in
cuttings of the roads are called shoulders. The shoulders are generally in level
with road surface having a slope towards drain side. The shoulders and foot path
prevent the edge of the road from wear and tear. The minimum shoulder width
recommended by IRC is 2.5 m.
8. KERBS-
The boundaries between the pavement and shoulder of foot path are known as
kerbs. These are also provided between the pavement and the traffic separator or
divider. It is desirable to provide kerbs on urban roads.
9. SIDE SLOPES-
The slopes of the sides of earth work of embankment and cutting to ensure their
stability are called side slopes. The embankment is generally given a side slope of
1:1.5.
10. BERMS-
The width of the land left in between the toes of the embankment and the inner
edges of the borrow pits is called berms.

Engineering Construction Notes Summary

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Engineering Construction Notes Summary