The document discusses various types of reasoning, including deductive, inductive, analogical, abductive, and fallacious reasoning, and suggests that reasoning ability develops from infancy influenced by cognitive factors like memory and executive functions. It highlights the importance of understanding different reasoning methods for effective argumentation and decision-making, including how flawed reasoning can arise from formal or informal fallacies. Additionally, it outlines mental heuristics that affect reasoning processes, emphasizing the need for critical thinking and engagement in activities to enhance reasoning skills.

2. REASONING
BASICS
TYPES OF REASONING THEORIES OF REASONING
2 BASIC THEORIES

5.  It is an active question in psychology how, why, and when the ability to reason
develops from infancy to adulthood. According to the neo-Piagetian theories
of cognitive development, changes in reasoning with development come from
increasing working memory capacity, increasing speed of processing, and
enhanced executive functions and control. Increasing self-awareness is also
an important factor.
 the cognitive scientists Hugo Mercier and Dan Sperber put forward an
"argumentative" theory of reasoning, claiming that humans evolved to reason
primarily to justify our beliefs and actions and to convince others in a
social environment

6. Deductive reasoning.
Inductive reasoning.
• Analogical reasoning.
Abductive reasoning.
Fallacious reasoning.
Causal reasoning.
Sign reasoning.
Decompositional reasoning.
Reasoning from authority.

7.  It goes from specific to general.
 Deductive reasoning is a logical approach where you progressed from general
ideas to specific conclusions.
 Example:
• All students in this class play guitar.
• Sam is a student of this class.
• Therefore, Sam plays guitar.
In deductive reasoning conclusion to be true if the premises are true.
If one of the premises are not true , then the conclusion is also not true

9.  It goes from general to specific.
 Inductive reasoning is the process of using examples and observations to
reach a conclusion.
• It derives general principles from specific observations.
 Example:
• The teacher used ppt in the last few classes therefore the teacher will use ppt
tomorrow.
 In inductive reasoning, conclusion is not guaranteed to be true if the premises
are true

11.  Analogical reasoning is a form of inductive reasoning from a particular to a
particular. It is often used in case-based reasoning, especially legal reasoning.
 Analogical reasoning is a weaker form of inductive reasoning from a single
example, because inductive reasoning typically uses a large number of
examples to reason from the particular to the general. Analogical reasoning
often leads to wrong conclusions.
 Example,
Premise 1: Socrates is human and male.
Premise 2: Ella is human.
Conclusion: Ella is male.

13.  Abductive reasoning, or argument to the best explanation often involves both
inductive and deductive arguments.
 What separates abduction from the other forms of reasoning is an attempt to
favor one conclusion above others, by attempting to falsify alternative
explanations or by demonstrating the likelihood of the favored conclusion,
given a set of more or less disputable assumptions.

15.  Flawed reasoning in arguments is known as fallacious reasoning. Reasoning
within arguments can be bad because it commits either a formal fallacy or an
informal fallacy.
1. Formal Fallacies:
Formal fallacies occur when there is a problem with the form, or structure, of the
argument. The word 'formal' refers to this link to the form of the argument. An
argument that contains a formal fallacy will always be invalid.
2. Informal fallacies:
An informal fallacy is an error in reasoning that occurs due to a problem with the
content, rather than mere structure, of the argument. Reasoning that commits an
informal fallacy often occurs in an argument that is invalid, that is, contains a formal
fallacy. An argument can be valid, that is, contain no formal reasoning fallacies, and

17.  Causal reasoning refers to all cognition about cause and effect, except learning.
“Reasoning” can refer to any post-learning cognitive processing, and the
qualifier “causal” stipulates concern with cause and effect
 This reasoning is used to explain what may happen if an action takes place or
why things happen when some conditions are present.
 This type of reasoning commonly guides everyday decision-making, in cases
where people draw on personal experience and a desire to improve.
 This type of reasoning can help people trust your arguments, especially if you
are accurate most of the time.

21.  Deccompositional reasoning is the process of breaking things into constituent
parts to understand the function of each component and how it contributes to
the operation of the item as a whole.
 By analyzing each part independently, decompositional reasoning allows an
observer to draw powerful conclusions about the whole.
 You find this approach in several disciplines, including science, engineering,
marketing, product development, game development and software
development

23.  It is used when a person argues that a particular claim is justified because it is
held or advocate by a credible source.
 You can ask argument be accepted simply because someone you consider an
authority advocates it.
 You can support your arguments with the credibility of another person

25. Mental logic
Heuristic approach

26.  The hypothesis that reasoning depends on a mental logic postulates two main
steps in making a deductive inference.
We recover the logical forms of the premises.
We use formal rules to prove a conclusion.

27.  Heuristics are mental shortcuts for solving problems in a quick way that
delivers a result that is sufficient enough to be useful given time constraints.

29.  Affect
It emphasizes the instant emotions generated in individuals in response to a
stimulus. It could be any positive or negative feeling they experience at a particular
moment and in a specific situation.
 Anchoring
In this approach, individuals or entities make judgments based on the very first set
of information they get called “anchor”. Since the decision is usually made in a hurry,
it may be inaccurate.
 Availability
It is a process in which persons or entities recall previous related instances and
evaluate their effectiveness in resolving problems.

30.  Representativeness
This technique makes individuals or entities evaluate the likelihood of a solution to
a problem or conclusion in a situation based on a similar past event that acts as
representative data.

31. Let us consider the following examples to understand the concept better:
Example #1
If someone is trying to decide whether to go to a particular restaurant they might
base their decisions on whether they can easily recall hearing good things about
the restaurant .

32. REASONIG THINKING
Reasoning is a mental
process that uses logics.
Thinking is a mental process
which produces thoughts.
Reasoning is always a
conscious efforts.
Thinking can be either
conscious or unconscious.
Logic plays a key role in
reasoning.
Logic does not play a key
role in thinking.
Reasoning is a sub category
of the though process.
Thinking is a large process.

33.  Engaging in Activities that Require Critical Thought.
 Keep trying new things.
 Exercise.
 Journal.
 Play games that require reasoning skills.
 Strategic board games, games like chess, and word games all help
reasoning skills.
 Do not make assumptions.
 Give Attention on situations.