This document provides an overview of approaches to academic writing and analyzing journal articles. It discusses four principal types of academic papers: literature reviews, policy reviews, research papers, and position papers. It describes the components that should typically be included in research papers and position papers. It also describes an activity where participants analyzed examples of a position paper and research paper in groups. The document provides guidance on writing structure, coherence, clarity, and arguments for academic writing. It discusses stating the purpose and editing written work.

1. Reading and Writing at M-level
Introduction
28 October 2014
www.le.ac.uk

2. Objectives
• Reflect on approaches to academic writing
• Read and analyse some ‘typical’ journal articles (pre-advised)
• Prepare for the challenges of academic writing

3. Starter activity
• Types of reading to inform assignments
• Your views?

4. Types of paper
• academic journal articles vary
• four principal types?
• ‘usual’ characteristics
• overlaps so neat division not always possible

5. Academic papers: literature and policy
• literature review papers (critical review of the
literature on a topic e.g. French 2003 on teaching
assistants in the US; Black & Wiliam, 1999, Inside the
Black Box: raising standards through classroom
assessment)
• policy reviews (critical analysis of an educational
policy) e.g. Dearing, R. 2008. ‘Perspectives on Policy’,
Action on the Languages Review. Language Learning
Journal 36(1), 97–100.

6. Academic papers: position and research
• research papers (presenting the findings from a
research project) e.g. McCall, Ian (2011): Score in
French: motivating boys with football in Key Stage 3,
Language Learning Journal, 39(1),5-18.
• position papers (critical analysis of current position
with presentation of alternative; or, arguing in
support of a theory or policy; or presentation of a
model to fill a perceived gap. Examples of position
papers might include: John, P. D. (2006)

7. Position papers
Five possible guide questions:
1. What is the status quo/position scrutinised?
2. What alternative approach(es) are proposed?
3. What evidence is drawn on in support of an
alternative?
4. What recommendations result from this?
5. How convincing do you find the argument(s)?

8. Research papers
You should find:
• Broad aims (of the study/research)
• Where study was done
• Previous studies/literature: research tradition that underpins the work
• Subjects of study (number, gender, age, background) or objects (e.g. documents)
• Research question(s)/hypothesis(es) or FOCUS
• Research design
• Type of study (e.g. survey/description/evaluation/trial/case study))
• Methods of data collection
• Methods of data analysis
• Results: what the research revealed
• Conclusions (and their relevance to classroom)
Then, you can engage in:
• Evaluation: extent to which the conclusions are trustworthy

9. Reviewing papers; importance of critical
and systematic reading
• Hargreaves, Eleanore (2005) Assessment for
learning? Thinking outside the (black) box,
Cambridge Journal of Education, 35:2, 213-224.

10. Abstract
This article draws on a survey of 83 teachers, to explore the concepts of
‘assessment for learning’, ‘assessment’ and ‘learning’. ‘Assessment for learning’ is
categorized as meaning: monitoring pupils’ performance against targets or
objectives; using assessment to inform next steps in teaching and learning;
teachers giving feedback for improvement; (teachers) learning about children’s
learning; children taking some control of their own learning and assessment; and
turning assessment into a learning event. Conceptions of assessment include
assessment-as-measurement and assessment-as-inquiry. These conceptions are
related to two conceptions of learning: learning-as-attaining-objectives and
learning-as-the-construction-of-knowledge. The conceptions of assessment-as-measurement
and learning-as-attaining-objectives are dominant in English
educational policy today. The article suggests that these conceptions need to be
challenged and expanded, since conceptions held by those who have power in
education determine what sort of assessment and learning happen in the
classroom, and therefore the quality of the student’s learning processes and
products.

11. • ‘Drawing on my contacts with teachers and head
teachers on various assessment projects, I invited 83
teachers and head teachers to take part in a survey
of how different people understand the phrase
‘assessment for learning’. Each person wrote down,
without conferring with others, what ‘assessment
for learning’ meant to them. They submitted their
responses anonymously.’ (p. 214)
• ‘These responses provide a basis for the discussion
presented in this paper. Later in the paper, I also give
some illustrative examples of assessment for
learning from a selection of the 83 teachers’
classrooms, which I visited during research
projects.’ (p. 214)
Survey
where/
how?
Please
remember
this

12. Within my interpretations of assessment for learning
described above, two distinct meanings for assessment can
be extrapolated: assessment as measurement, and
assessment as inquiry.
In the first evident meaning of assessment, where
assessment is equated with measurement, measurement
refers to the act or process of determining or estimating the
amount, extent or level of a student’s ‘learning’, often using
tests as the means of doing so. Nitko (1995) has stressed
that reporting is an essential aspect of measuring………
Marking, checking, identifying, showing a level, monitoring:
these were all verbs used by the 83 teachers as they
described assessment in assessment for learning, within
this measurement paradigm.(p. 218)

13. In the second meaning of assessment that was
evident in the 83 teachers’ definitions, assessment
was equated with inquiry. Inquiry means making a
search or investigation. For many definitions in our
sample, the concept of inquiry seemed key to
assessment: verbs teachers used included
reflecting, reviewing, finding out, discovering,
diagnosing, learning about, examining, looking
at, engaging with, understanding. All of these
suggest an exploratory and sensitive venture, with
no clear endpoints except a heightened awareness
of current developments. (p. 218)

14. Classrooms?
• Jill (primary, we can infer)
• Nadia (?)
• Remy (primary)
• Melina (secondary)
• Ben (Romans?)
• Mia (?)
• Were there more? What was done in visits? How?
Why? What was/were the RQs?

15. Nadia
An example of this paradigm of assessment includes Nadia’s
classroom (another from among the 83 teachers’ classrooms), in
which students are encouraged to investigate their learning
processes during the day. Then they are given 30 minutes to
describe their reflections in learning journals, which can remain
private to the students if they wish. Students’ comments have
included:
Learning, I think, is all about experiencing new things and
exploring new topics.
I find learning is life. I don’t think learning is just about
school. You learn everywhere you go.
I think you know when you’ve learnt something because
you can explain it to someone else.

16. Transparency
• How does the writer analyse the data?
• How were observations conducted?
• When?
• Were they recorded?
• How were they analysed?
• How many schools visited?
• How many heads? How many teachers?
• Primary? Secondary?

17. What should be in a paper?
• Context
• Clarity
• Coherence
• Effective transitions
• Transparency
• Sound evidence
• Well-supported claims

18. Article analysis
Groups 1
Position paper (John, 2006): work in groups of four to
complete the analysis as rapidly as you can extracting data
from the paper (scanning and extracting)
Groups 2
Research paper (Ylonen and Norwich, 2012): work in
groups of four to complete the grid as fully as possible,
sharing out tasks
In each case, arrive at as detailed an analysis as
possible (20 minutes each?), then two 1s present your
findings to two 2s and vice versa (10 minutes)
Would you modify the two things you like/dislike
following this task?

19. John, 2006: Plenary
1. Old position: The linear model of planning (minimalist
information-processing view)
2. New: Dialogical model of lesson planning (p. 491)
3. Support: Pages 492-3: flexible; mimics processes of
expert practitioner; recognises diversity of learners
etc. Allows for student teacher development;
practical
4. Use: Suggestions for teaching practice on p. 492-493
(in terms of use near top of p. 492).
5. Convincing: The ideas in this paper remain speculative
(p. 495)

20. One analysis Microsoft Word
Document

21. Part 2: writing

22. Academic Writing
1. Structure
2. Coherence
3. Clarity
4. Argument

23. Know what is required
• length?
• Layout/organisation
• structure (e.g abstract, introduction; literature
review; research design; presentation of data;
analysis; discussion of findings; conclusions)
• referencing requirements?
• how it is assessed?

24. Present the question or the topic
• working title, later refined,
• as precise as possible
a) Does explicit error correction assist the development
of second language writing? A review of the research
evidence and a case study of … (empirical)
b) Grammar in the Curriculum: an investigation of the
impact of explicit instruction about grammar on the
writing of a class of 14 year-olds in …… (empirical)
c) Support staff in schools: their roles and contributions
to academic engagement in …….

25. Writing advice
• See handout for detailed advice (plus activities)
• General advice
• Toolkit
• Activities: references; improving text (introduction
and main body)

26. Stating the purpose
The aim of this study was to firstly, establish using the
current guidelines given by course providers using the
following questions:
 How do teachers feel currently about exploring ethical
and moral issues in the classroom?
 Currently, how often are ethical and moral issues used
in learning?
 What skills and training do teachers need to have in
order to explore ethical issues such as IVF in the
classroom?
 What resources do teachers currently have to support
the exploration of ethical/moral issues with pupils?
 What is the value of using ethical and moral issues in
learning?

27. Editing?
The aim of this study was to firstly, establish using the
current guidelines given by course providers using the
following questions:
 How do teachers feel currently about exploring ethical and
moral issues in the classroom?
 Currently, how often are ethical and moral issues used in
learning?
 What skills and training do teachers need to have in order to
explore ethical issues such as IVF in the classroom?
 What resources do teachers currently have to support the
exploration of ethical/moral issues with pupils?
 What is the value of using ethical and moral issues in
learning?

28. Editing
The aim of this study was to explore the extent to which (a
group of) teachers (in one school) make use of the current
guidelines given by course providers (DCSF, 2008). The
study will focus on seeking answers to the following:
• How teachers feel about exploring ethical and moral
issues in the classroom;
• How often ethical and moral issues are used in learning;
• Skills and training teachers need to have in order to
explore ethical issues such as IVF in the classroom;
• The resources teachers have to support the exploration of
ethical/moral issues with pupils;
• Teachers’ beliefs about the value of using ethical and
moral issues in learning.

29. Referencing and avoiding plagiarism
• References - use Harvard system
• Do not use footnotes
• Refer to the annotated guidance sheet issued in this
session
• Refer to additional support on Blackboard
• Reference list at end of assignment: this must only
list the texts you have referred to in your assignment
not all those you have read in preparation

30. References: consistency!!!!!
 ABC order
 Author surname + initial
 Title in italics or underlined (usually book or journal
title)
 Page numbers for journal articles, as well as volume
and issue, e.g. 41/3: 213-225 or 41(3), 213-225
 Place and name of publisher e.g. Milton Keynes:
Open University Press or London, Routledge.
Tickle, L. (1994) The Induction of New Teachers.
London, Cassell.

31. Example written by Sue Dymoke
(in Dymoke & Harrison, 2008, 91)
• In England and Wales, the National Literacy Strategy was
introduced by a government intent on pushing up
standards and developing a more literate young
workforce that would be equipped for entering a
‘fulfilling adult life’ (DfEE, 1998: 1). The Strategy’s
Framework for Teaching English in Years 7, 8 and 9
(DfEE, 2001) was introduced to all schools though a pilot
project and before its evaluation was complete (Furlong
et al., 2001). Although a non-statutory document, the
‘policing of Key Stage Three teaching’ (Fleming and
Stevens, 2004: 19) through OfSTED and Strategy team
consultants has ensured its widespread adoption in
schools.

32. References
Department for Education and Employment (DfEE) (1998) National
Literacy Strategy: Framework for Teaching. London, DfEE
Publications.
Department for Education and Employment (DfEE) (2001) Framework
for Teaching English in Years 7, 8 and 9. London, DfEE Publications.
Fleming, M. and Stevens, D. (2004) English Teaching in the Secondary
School, 2nd edn. London, David Fulton.
Furlong, T., Venkatakrishnan, H. and Brown, M. (2001) Key Stage 3
National Strategy: An Evaluation of the Strategies for Literacy and
Mathematics Interim Report. London, ATL.
Hennessey., Ruthven, K. & Brindley, S. (2003) Teacher perspectives on
integrating ICT into subject teaching: commitment, constraints,
caution and change. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 37(2), 155-192.
Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) (2007) Programme of
Study: Mathematics Key Stage 3. www.qca.org.uk/qca_12195.aspx
(accessed 14 October 2008).

33. Writing an assignment: lit review
1. What is group work? (reasons for interest in this topic; a
problem or question). Questions used to analyse literature.
2. What is the value of group work?
3. What are the principles of effective group work? (review of
non-statutory advice on group work; review of research on
the value of group work)
4. Controversies about group work:
 advantages/disadvantages/challenges
1. Evaluation of your review of literature on group work in
relation to KS4 teaching of science (or other subjects)
2. Implications and conclusions.

34. Research-based assignment
 Introduction
 Literature Review
 Method (incl. how ethics observed)
 Results (findings)
 Discussion
 Implications and Conclusion
See SCITT Toolkit for advice

35. Introduction
• This assignment is based on a curriculum investigation into the
effectiveness of recommended teaching strategies for students
for whom English is an additional language (EAL). It is based on
a case-study of one Year Seven English class. I will be examining
several lessons that I have taught which have incorporated EAL
strategies, and evaluating their effectiveness. I will also include
information obtained from observations from other teachers
watching these lessons and from interviews taken from the
person responsible for the Ethic Minority Achievement Grant
(EMAG). I will examine the way that students interact with four
teachers in total, including myself. My lessons follow the
suggested structure of Cummins’ quadrant (2000, cited in DFES:
2006, p.30). In brief, I hope to support students through the
journey of an EAL learner, resulting in assessment pieces that
require more independent learning skills.

36. Literature review
 Discussion and critical analysis of existing and other
literature on your topic.
 Establish your ‘theoretical framework’, e.g. if you are doing
classroom interaction analysis you let the reader know
what the major, or most relevant, approaches are and why
you have chosen to use a particular one (or a combination
or adaptation perhaps).
 You introduce, define, and explain key issues, terms, and
concepts in this section.
 In summary, this is where you establish what the issues are
and that you have expertise in the area of your topic.
 The research questions may emerge naturally from the
discussion of the literature review.

37. Defining key terms
So, what exactly do we mean by literature from
different cultures and traditions, and why is it
important that we include these in the education of
children in England? ‘Literature from different
cultures’ refers to works written in English, but that
are about places, people, and traditions which are
different to our own. The National Curriculum
(QCDA, 2007) states:
‘Students should be taught to …
(continues)
• Can you improve on this?

38. Methods
If you have done empirical research, this is where you
explain:
 what you did, and why, justifying the approach,
 how you did it, and why,
 who was involved, and why.

39. Presenting and discussing findings
 Analyse and discuss the results at the same time
as you are presenting them (one approach)
 Analyse critically but also try and show links with
the literature you discussed in the literature review
(coherence).
 If you have asked research questions, you try to
answer them here.
 Make sure that you have fulfilled the purpose you
set out in the introduction

40. Implications and Conclusions
Implications
 Often merged with Conclusions into Implications & Conclusions: implications
for your context and perhaps speculate briefly about wider implications. NO
claims without evidence for them, but with sufficient caution you can make
tentative suggestions.
 Exemplify/illustrate any recommendations you might make, e.g. for
classroom practice, policy etc.
Conclusions
 Draw together the main points you have made in the paper – no new
information in this section.
 Evaluate what you have done, e.g. the limitations of your research, or what
its contribution might be, and look ahead in terms of the new for future
research or policy changes etc.

41. Conclusion: example
• ‘What can we therefore derive from this analysis of the teaching
of literature from different cultures at GCSE? I will start with the
students themselves, as it is they who should always be the
main focus. My personal investigations into this area of teaching
seem to suggest that students are failing to engage with these
texts as both those determining the curriculum and those
delivering it hoped they would. The pupils in the school where I
conducted my research found it difficult from the outset to
connect with the poems in the Anthology and they persisted in
viewing the subject matter and themes as being far removed
from their own lives and experiences, despite the change in
wording from “other” to “different”. Any connections that they
made between the poems were considered at a surface level
only, as …….’
• Can you improve on this?

42. Any queries?
• Look at SCITT Toolkit
• Reading a key to improving writing
• Critical reader support?
• Thank you