This document provides an overview of qualitative research methods. It begins with an introduction to qualitative research, defining it as a naturalistic inquiry that seeks an in-depth understanding of social phenomena in their natural setting. It then discusses some key aspects of qualitative research including philosophical assumptions, interpretive frameworks, and comparison to quantitative methods. The document outlines important considerations for starting qualitative research such as developing a topic, purpose and research questions. It also discusses ethical issues and attributes needed for qualitative research. Overall, the document serves as a guide to conceptualizing and planning qualitative research studies.

1. Qualitative
Research
Essentials
Prof. Dr. Khalid Mahmood
University of the Punjab

2. About me
o Professor and Chairman of Information Management at University of the
Punjab, Pakistan
o Post-doctoral research at University of California, Los Angeles, USA
o 160+ publications
o Supervised many doctoral and master theses
o Worked for various research journals as editor, reviewer and editorial
board member
o Conducted many trainings on research methods, writing and publishing
2

3. Acknowledgment
￮ I have prepared this presentation with the
help of many books, presentations and
Websites.
￮ I pay my sincere gratitude to all authors,
professors and experts for their efforts and
contributions.
3

4. Contents
o Introduction to qualitative research
o Using philosophy in qualitative research
o How to start qualitative research
4

5. Introduction to
qualitative
research

6. Qualitative research – a definition
A process of naturalistic inquiry that seeks in-depth
understanding of social phenomena within their natural
setting. It focuses on the "why" rather than the "what" of social
phenomena and relies on the direct experiences of human
beings as meaning-making agents in their every day lives.
6

7. Qualitative research…
o Allows the researcher to understand a problem or
phenomenon from the perspectives of the people it involves.
o Reveals a complete picture of a certain research issue.
o Seeks to provide a rich understanding of a certain research
issue.
7

8. In qualitative methods…
o Researcher collects data in a real environment.
o Researcher himself/herself is the key research tool.
o Focus of research is a process or activity itself, not just
results of that process or activity.
o Data collected is most often verbal (non-numerical).
o Verbal data analysis.
8

9. Comparison of quantitative and
qualitative methods
9
QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE
Multiple realities Single reality
Reality is socially constructed Reality is objective
Reality is context interrelated Reality is context free
Holistic Reductionistic
Reasoning is inductive Reasoning is deductive and
inductive
Discovery of meaning is the basis of
knowledge
Cause-and-effect relationships are
the bases of knowledge
Develops theory Tests theory

10. Comparison of quantitative and
qualitative methods
10
QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE
Meaning of concepts Measurement of variables
Process oriented Outcome oriented
Control unimportant Control important
Rich descriptions Precise measurement of variables
Basic element of analysis is words Basic element of analysis is numbers
Uniqueness Generalization
Trustworthiness of findings Control of error

11. Historical development
o Started in late 19th century
o USA and UK
o Fields of sociology and anthropology
o Faced criticism from natural scientists
o In 1960s and 1970s qualitative researchers started to
formalize their methods
11

12. Using
philosophy in
qualitative
research

13. Philosophy
A way of thinking about the world, the
universe, and society. It works by asking
very basic questions about the nature of
human thought, the nature of the
universe, and the connections between
them. The ideas in philosophy are often
general and abstract.
13

14. Research philosophy
o A system of beliefs and assumptions
about the development of knowledge.
o Use of abstract ideas and beliefs that
inform our research.
14

15. Important terms
￮ Worldview: A broad and deep system of thinking about the methods to be
used in social science research, based on having a particular ontological
perspective.
￮ Paradigm: A conceptual framework within which scientific (and other)
theories are constructed, and within which scientific practices take place.
Major changes in thought and practice have been referred to as paradigm
shifts. ‘Paradigm’ and ‘worldview’ are used interchangeably.
￮ Theory: A system of logical statements or propositions that explain the
relationship between two or more objects, concepts, phenomena, or
characteristics of humans.
15

16. Important terms
o Method: A technique or tool for data
collection or analysis.
o Methodology: Theory of how research
proceeds, including consideration of such
things as methods, participants and the role
of the researcher, ethics and so forth.
16

17. Why philosophy is important
o Direction of research goals and outcomes
o Scope of training and research experiences
o Basis of evaluative criteria for research-related decisions
17

18. Research
onion
18

19. Positivism
￮ The methods of the natural sciences are appropriate for the study of social
phenomenon
￮ Only those phenomena which are observable can be counted as knowledge
￮ Knowledge is developed inductively through the accumulation of verified facts
￮ Hypotheses are derived deductively from scientific theories to be tested
empirically (the scientific method)
￮ Observations are the final arbiter in theoretical disputes
￮ Facts and values are distinct, thus making it possible to conduct objective
enquiry
￮ Contributors: Rene Descartes, Isaac Newton, Francis Bacon, David Hume,
Auguste Comte 19

20. Interpretivism
￮ Perception relates not only to the senses but to human interpretations of what
our senses tell us
￮ Our knowledge of the world is based on 'understanding' which arises from
thinking about what happens to us, not just simply from having had particular
experiences
￮ Knowing and knowledge surpass basic empirical enquiry
￮ Distinctions exist between 'scientific reason' (based strictly on causal
determinism) and 'practical reason' (based on moral freedom and decision-
making which involve less certainty)
￮ Contributors: Emmanuel Kant, Wilhelm Dilthey, Max Weber
20

21. Philosophical
assumptions in
qualitative
research

22. Ontological assumption
22
Question Characteristics
Implications for Practice
(examples)
What is the
nature of
reality?
Reality is subjective
and multiple, as seen
by participants in the
study.
Researcher uses quotes
and themes in words of
participants and
provides evidence of
different perspectives.

23. Epistemological assumption
23
Question Characteristics
Implications for
Practice (examples)
What is the
relationship
between the
researcher and that
being researched?
Researcher
attempts to lessen
distance between
himself or herself
and that being
researched.
Researcher
collaborates,
spends time in field
with participants,
and becomes an
“insider.”

24. Axiological assumption
24
Question Characteristics
Implications for
Practice (examples)
What is the role of
values?
Researcher
acknowledges that
research is value
laden and that
biases are present.
Researcher openly
discusses values
that shape the
narrative and
includes own
interpretation in
conjunction with
interpretations of
participants.

25. Rhetorical assumption
25
Question Characteristics
Implications for
Practice (examples)
What is the
language of
research?
Researcher writes in a
literary, informal style
using the personal
voice and uses
qualitative terms and
limited definitions.
Researcher uses an
engaging style of
narrative, may use
first-person pronoun,
and employs the
language of
qualitative research.

26. Methodological assumption
26
Question Characteristics
Implications for Practice
(examples)
What is the
process of
research?
Researcher uses
inductive logic,
studies the topic
within its context, and
uses an emerging
design.
Researcher works with
particulars (details) before
generalizations, describes in
detail the context of the
study, and continually
revises questions from
experiences in the field.

27. Major interpretive
frameworks

28. Interpretive frameworks
￮ Postpositivism
￮ Social constructivism
￮ Transformative frameworks
￮ Postmodern perspectives
￮ Pragmatism
￮ Feminist theories
￮ Critical theory and critical race
theory
￮ Queer theory
￮ Disability theories
28

29. Postpositivism
29
Possible
researcher goals
Potential researcher
influences
Examples of researcher
practices
To discover
contributors to
probability within
situations of
cause and effect
Prior quantitative
research training
Reports systematic data
collection and analysis
procedures followed to
ensure rigor

30. Social constructivism
30
Possible
researcher goals
Potential researcher
influences
Examples of
researcher practices
To understand
the world in
which they live
and work
Recognition of
background as
shaping
interpretation
Interprets
participants’
constructions of
meaning in his/her
account

31. Transformative frameworks
31
Possible
researcher goals
Potential researcher
influences
Examples of researcher
practices
To act for societal
improvements
Knowledge of
power and social
relationships within
society
Adopts an action
agenda for addressing
the injustices of
marginalized groups

32. Postmodern perspectives
32
Possible
researcher goals
Potential researcher
influences
Examples of researcher
practices
To change ways
of thinking
Understandings of
the conditions of
the world today
Situates research to
highlight multiplicity of
perspectives

33. Pragmatism
33
Possible
researcher goals
Potential researcher
influences
Examples of researcher
practices
To find solutions
to real-world
problems
Appreciation for
diverse
approaches to
collecting and
analyzing and the
contexts in which
research takes
place
Uses the most
appropriate methods
for addressing the
research question

34. Feminist theories
34
Possible
researcher goals
Potential researcher
influences
Examples of researcher
practices
To conduct
research that is
transformative for
women
Perspectives of
power relationships
and individuals’
social position and
how they impact
women
Poses questions that
relate to the centrality of
gender in the shaping of
our consciousness

35. Critical theory
and critical race theory
35
Possible
researcher goals
Potential researcher
influences
Examples of researcher
practices
To address areas
of inequities and
empower
humans
Acknowledgment
of own power,
engagement in
dialogues, and use
of theory to
interpret social
actions
Designs research in
such a way that
transforms the
underlying orders of
social life

36. Queer theory
36
Possible
researcher goals
Potential researcher
influences
Examples of researcher
practices
To convey the
voices and
experiences of
individuals who
have been
suppressed
Understandings of
need for thinking
about sexual
categories as open,
fluid, and non-fixed
Engages in inquiry with
a focus on exploring the
countless complexities
of individual identity

37. Disability theories
37
Possible
researcher goals
Potential researcher
influences
Examples of researcher
practices
To address the
meaning of
inclusion
Recognition of
disability as a
dimension of
human difference
and not as a defect
Employs a disability
interpretive lens for
informing the research
process

38. Philosophical
beliefs associated
with interpretive
frameworks

39. Postpositivism
39
Ontology Epistemology Axiology Methodology
A single reality
exists beyond
ourselves, “out
there.” The
researcher may
not be able to
understand it or
get to it because
of lack of
absolutes.
Reality can only be
approximated, but
it is constructed
through research
and statistics.
Interaction with
research subjects
is kept to a
minimum. Validity
comes from peers,
not participants.
The researcher’s
biases need to be
controlled
and not expressed
in a study.
Scientific method and
writing is used. Object of
research is to create new
knowledge. Method is
important. Deductive
methods are important, such
as testing of theories,
specifying important
variables, and making
comparisons among groups.

40. Social constructivism
40
Ontology Epistemology Axiology Methodology
Multiple realities
are constructed
through our lived
experiences and
Interactions with
others.
Reality is co-
constructed
between the
researcher and the
researched and
shaped by
individual
experiences.
Individual values
are honored and
are negotiated
among
individuals.
More of a literary style of writing
is used. Use of an inductive
method of emergent ideas
(through consensus) is
obtained through methods
such as interviewing, observing,
and analyzing texts.

41. Transformative / postmodern
41
Ontology Epistemology Axiology Methodology
Participation
between
researcher and
communities
or individuals is
being studied.
Often a
subjective–
objective reality
emerges.
There are co-
created findings
with multiple ways
of knowing.
There is
respect for
indigenous
values; values
need to be
problematized
and
interrogated.
Methods consist of using
collaborative processes of
research, encouraging political
participation, questioning of
methods, and highlighting
issues and concerns.

42. Pragmatism
42
Ontology Epistemology Axiology Methodology
Reality is what
is useful, is
practical, and
“works.”
Reality is known
through using many
tools of research that
reflect both deductive
(objective)
evidence and
Inductive (subjective)
evidence.
Values are discussed
because of the way
that knowledge reflects
both the researchers’
and the participants’
views.
The research process
involves both
quantitative and
qualitative approaches
to data collection and
analysis.

43. Critical, race, feminist, queer, disability
43
Ontology Epistemology Axiology Methodology
Reality is based on
power and identity
struggles. Privilege or
oppression based on
race or ethnicity,
class, gender, mental
abilities, sexual
preference.
Reality is known
through the study
of social structures,
freedom and
oppression, power,
and control. Reality
can be changed
through research.
Diversity of
values is
emphasized
within the
standpoint of
various
communities.
Start with assumptions
of power and identity
struggles, document
them, and call for action
and change.

44. Use of theory in qualitative research
1. Like in quantitative research, it is used as a broad
explanation for behavior and attitudes, and it may be
complete with variables, constructs, and hypotheses.
2. Use it as a theoretical lens or perspective
3. Build a theory (inductive approach)
4. Do not employ any explicit theory
44

45. How to start
qualitative
research

46. 46
When to
use
qualitative
research

47. What a qualitative study requires from us
o Commit to extensive time in the field.
o Engage in the complex, time-consuming process of data analysis.
o Write lengthy and descriptive passages.
o Embrace dynamic and emergent procedures.
o Attend to anticipated and developing ethical issues.
47

48. Personal attributes in doing qual research
o Listening
o Asking good questions
o Knowing your topic of study
o Caring about your data
o Doing parallel tasks
o Dedication to your work
48

49. 49

50. Qualitative
research –
a cyclical
process
50

51. Ethical considerations
o Mutual respect and trust (prolonged interaction)
o Respect for social and cultural contexts
o Voluntary participation
o Informed consent
o Beneficence – doing good for others and preventing harm
o Confidentiality
51

52. Three goals for successfully starting up
1. a topic (what are you going to study?)
2. a data collection method (how are you going to collect the
data?)
3. a source of data—in many cases a fieldwork setting
(where are you going to get the data that are to be
collected?).
52

53. Ways of
getting
started
Developing a study bank
53

54. Identify a topic
of inquiry
Identify individuals/groups
Identify events/organizations
54

55. 55

56. Problem statement
o An opening paragraph
o An issue or problem that needs to be resolved
o Need or rationale for the study
56

57. Purpose statement
57

58. Research questions
o Clear
o Focused, but not too narrow
o Capable of being researched through data collection: not too abstract, or
questions which require the application of philosophy rather than of data
o Relevant and useful, whether to policy, practice or the development of social
theory
o Informed by and connected to existing research or theory, but with the
potential to make an original contribution or to fill a gap
o Feasible, given the resources available
o Of at least some interest to the researcher 58

59. 59
Thanks!