Research Designs

1. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
DESIGNS:
• Introduction
The qualitative research designs is a
general way of thinking about
conducting qualitative research. It
describes, either explicitly or implicitly, the
purpose of the qualitative research, the role
of the researcher(s), the stages of research,
and the method of data analysis.

2. CONT…
• Qualitative method is used to
understand people's beliefs,
experiences, attitudes, behavior,
and interactions. It generates non-
numerical data Pathak, Jena, &
Kalra, (2013).

3. CONT…
• Qualitative research is not
looking for cause and effect.
Instead it looks at meaning,
perspectives and motivations. It
is looking for the WHY.

4. The nature of qualitative research
• Qualitative research is concerned
with developing explanations of
social phenomena. It aims at
helping people to understand the
world in which they live and why
things are the way they are.

5. CONT…
• It is after the social aspects of our
world. It is concerned with questions
about: how much? How many?
How often? To what extent? It
studies the opinions, experiences and
feelings of individuals producing
subjective data.

6. CONT…
• It describes social phenomena as
they occur naturally. No attempt is
made to manipulate the situation
under study; Understanding of a
situation is gained through a
holistic perspective. Sigmund
G.(2020)

7. Characteristics of Qualitative
research design
1.Natural setting:
• Qualitative researchers tend to
collect data in the field at the site
where participants experience the
issue or problem under study.

8. CONT…
• This up-close information gathered by
actually talking directly to people and seeing
them behave and act within their context is a
major characteristic of qualitative research. In
the natural setting, the researchers have face-
to-face interaction, often extending over a
prolonged period of time.

9. CONT…
2. Researcher as key instrument:
• Qualitative researchers collect
data themselves through
examining documents, observing
behavior, or interviewing
participants.

10. CONT…
• They may use a protocol—an instrument
for recording data—but the researchers
are the ones who actually gather the
information and interpret it. They do not
tend to use or rely on questionnaires or
instruments developed by other
researchers.

11. CONT…
3. Multiple sources of data:
• Qualitative researchers typically
gather multiple forms of data,
such as interviews, observations,
documents, and audiovisual
information rather than rely on a
single data source.

12. CONT…
• These are all open-ended forms of data in
which the participants share their ideas freely,
not constrained by predetermined scales or
instruments. Then the researchers review all
of the data, make sense of it, and organize it
into codes and themes that cut across all of the
data sources.

13. CONT…
4. Inductive data analysis:
• Qualitative researchers typically
work inductively, building patterns,
categories, and themes from the
bottom up by organizing the data
into increasingly more abstract units
of information.

14. CONT…
5. Participants’ meanings:
• In the entire qualitative research process, the
researchers keep a focus on learning the
meaning that the participants hold about the
problem or issue, not the meaning that the
researchers bring to the research or that
writers express in the literature.

15. CONT…
6. Developing design:
• In this process researchers is emergent. This
means that the initial plan for research cannot be
tightly prescribed, and some or all phases of the
process may change or shift after the researcher
enters the field and begins to collect data. The
key idea behind qualitative research is to learn
about the problem or issue from participants and
to address the research to obtain that information.

16. CONT…
7. Reflexivity:
• In qualitative research, inquirers reflect about how
their role in the study and their personal background,
culture, and experiences hold potential for shaping
their interpretations, such as the themes they advance
and the meaning they ascribe to the data. This aspect
of the methods is more than merely advancing biases
and values in the study, but how the background of the
researchers actually may shape the direction of the
study.

17. CONT…
8. Holistic account:
• Qualitative researchers try to develop a complex
picture of the problem or issue under study. This
involves reporting multiple perspectives,
identifying the many factors involved in a
situation, and generally sketching the larger
picture that emerges. Creswell and Poth (2018),
Creswell (2016), Hatch (2002), and Marshall and
Rossman (2016).

18. Types of Qualitative research
designs
They are:
1) Phenomenology
2) Ethnography
3) Grounded theory
4) Case study
5) Narrative
6) Biographic

19. CONT…
i). Phenomenology;
 It literally means the study of phenomena. It is a way of
describing something that exists as part of the world in
which we live. It may be events, situations, experiences or
concepts.
 Phenomenological research begins with the
acknowledgement that there is a gap in our understanding
and that clarification or illumination will be of benefit.
Sometime it will not necessarily provide definitive
explanations but it does raise awareness and increases
insight. (Alex E. &Thomas D. (2017)

20. CONT…
ii). Ethnography;
• Ethnography has a background in
anthropology; it is a methodology for
descriptive studies of cultures and
peoples.
• Ethnographic studies entail extensive
fieldwork by the researcher.

21. CONT…
• Data collection techniques include
both formal and informal interviewing,
and participant observation. Because
of this, ethnography is extremely time-
consuming as it involves the researcher
spending long periods of time in the
field.

22. CONT…
iii). Narrative research
• Is a strategy of inquiry in which the researcher
studies the lives of individuals and asks one or more
individuals to provide stories about their lives. This
information is then often retold or restored by the
researcher into a narrative chronology. At the end,
the narrative combines from the participant's life
and the researcher forms a chronological narrative
(Ciandinin & Connelly. 2000).

23. CONT…
iv). Grounded theory
 The main feature is the development of new
theory through the collection and analysis of
data about a phenomenon. It goes beyond
phenomenology because the explanations that
emerge are genuinely new knowledge and are
used to develop new theories about a
phenomenon.

24. CONT…
 New theory begins its conception as the
researcher recognizes new ideas and themes
emerging from what people have said or from
events which have been observed. Memos
form in the researcher's consciousness as raw
data is reviewed.(ibid)

25. CONT…
v). Case study
• Case study research is one of those research approaches
which can take a qualitative or quantitative approach. The
qualitative approach to case study is described wherein
the value of case study relates to the in depth analysis of a
single or small number of units. Case study research is
used to describe an entity that forms a single unit such as
a person, an organization or an institution. (Ranjit K.
(2021).

26. Sampling in Qualitative
Designs
• In qualitative research you are guided
by your judgment as to who is likely
to provide you with the ‘best’
information. Selection of a sample in
qualitative is guided also by your
judgment as to who is likely to
provide you with complete and
diverse information.

27. CONT…
• This is a non-random process.
Sample size does not occupy a
significant place in qualitative
research and it is determined by
the data saturation point while
collecting data instead of being
fixed in advance.

28. CONT…
• In this approach data is usually collected to a
point where you are not getting new information
or it is negligible – the data saturation point. This
stage determines the sample size. All
nonprobability sampling designs – purposive,
judgmental, expert, accidental and snowball –
can also be used in qualitative research. Beverl
H. (2002).

29. Methods of Data collecting in
qualitative Design
• Qualitative approaches to data collection
usually involve direct interaction with
individuals on a one to one basis or in a
group setting. Data collection methods
are time consuming and consequently data
is collected from smaller numbers of
people.

30. CONT…
• The benefits of using these approaches include
richness of data and deeper insight into the phenomena
under study.
• Raw qualitative data cannot be analyzed statistically.
The data are often derives from face-to-face interviews,
focus groups or observation and so tends to be time
consuming to collect. Samples are usually smaller and
often locally based. Data analysis is also time
consuming and consequently expensive. Hancock B.
(1998-Updated 2002).

31. • THE MAIN METHODS OF
COLLECTING QUALITATIVE
DATA:

32. CONT…
 Individual interviews guide
 Focus groups guide
 Observation guide
 Documentation guide
 Questionnaire, inquiry
interrogation.

33. The interview guide
• Interviews can be highly
structured, semi structured or
unstructured.

34. Structured interviews
Consist of the interviewer asking each
respondent the same questions in the same
way. A tightly structured schedule of questions
is used, very much like a questionnaire. The
questions may even be phrased in such a way
that a limited range of responses can be
elicited.

35. Semi structured interviews
(Sometimes referred to as focused interviews)
involve a series of open ended questions based
on the topic areas the researcher wants to
cover. The open ended nature of the question
defines the topic under investigation but
provides opportunities for both interviewer and
interviewee to discuss some topics in more
detail.

36. CONT…
• In a semi structured interview the
interviewer also has the freedom
to probe the interviewee to
elaborate on the original response
or to follow a line of inquiry
introduced by the interviewee.

37. Unstructured interviews
(Sometimes referred to as "depth" or "in
depth" interviews have very little structure at
all. The interviewer goes into the interview
with the aim of discussing a limited number
of topics,
• Questions would depend on how the
interviewee responded. Alex E. (2017)

38. Focus groups
• Sometimes it is preferable to collect
information from groups of people rather than
from a series of individuals. Focus groups can be
useful to obtain certain types of information or
when circumstances would make it difficult to
collect information using other methods of data
collection. Hancock B. (2002-updated)

39. Group interviews can be used
when:
 Limited resources prevent more than a small
number of interviews being undertaken.
 It is possible to identify a number of
individuals who share a common factor and it
is desirable to collect the views of several
people within that population sub group.
 Group interaction among participants has the
potential for greater insights to be developed.

40. Characteristics of a focus group
1.The recommended size of a group is of 6 – 10
people.
2.Several focus groups should be run in any
research project.
3.The members of each focus group should have
something in common, features which are
important to the topic of investigation.

41. CONT…
1.Qualitative information is collected which
makes use of participants’ feelings, perceptions
and opinions.
• Using qualitative approaches requires certain
skills. The researchers require a range of skills:
groups skills in facilitating and moderating,
listening, observing and analyzing. Ranjit K.
(2011).

42. Observation
• It is a technique that can be used when data
collected through other means can be of limited
value or is difficult to validate. Not all qualitative
data collection approaches require direct interaction
with people.
• Observation of the environment can provide
valuable background information about the
environment where a research project is being
undertaken. John C. (2012), Bervelley H. (2002) .

43. Techniques for collecting
data through observation
• Written descriptions;
The researcher can record observations of people, a situation or
an environment by making notes of what has been observed.
• Video recording
This frees the observer from the task of making notes at the time
and allows events to be reviewed time after time.
• Photographs and objects
Photographs are a good way of collecting observable data of
phenomena which can be captured in a single shot or series of
shots. Patha, V. (2013)

44. Documentation
• A wide range of written materials can produce
qualitative information. They can be particularly
useful in trying to understand the philosophy of
an organization as may be required in action
research and case studies. They can include
policy documents, mission statements, annual
reports, minutes or meetings, codes of conduct.
Hancock B. (2002).

45. ANALYZING QUALITATIVE
DATA
• Analysis of data in a research
project involves summarizing the
mass of data collected and
presenting the results in a way that
communicates the most important
features. Patha V. (2013).

46. PRESENTING THE RESULTS OF
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
• Qualitative data has several features to take into
consideration when planning the presentation of
findings. The data are subjective, interpretative,
descriptive, holistic and abundant and it can be
difficult to know where or how to start. A good
starting point is to look at the themes and categories
which have emerged and to use these to structure
the results section of the research report. (Pritha
B.(2022)

47. CONCLUSION
• Qualitative data are collected through direct
encounters with individuals, through one to
one interviews or group interviews or by
observation. Data collection is time
consuming. The intensive and time consuming
nature of data collection necessitates the use of
small samples.

48. CONT…
• Different sampling techniques are used.
Qualitative sampling techniques are concerned
with seeking information from specific groups
and subgroups in the population. There are some
Criteria used to assess reliability and validity of
Qualitative research design that differ from those
used in quantitative research.

49. REFERENCES
• Morgan, D. L. (2014). Integrating qualitative & quantitative methods: A
pragmatic approach. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
• Beverl Hancock (Updated 2002) An introduction to Qualitative research,
Trent Focus group. University of Nottinghan
• Pathak, Jena, & Kalra, (2013). Qualitative Research, Perspectives in
clinical Research, 4, 192
https://doi.org/10.4103/2229-3485.115389
• Pritha B. (2022),What is Qualitative Research methods and Examples
https://www.scribber ,com/author/prithal/page/z/

50. REF. CONT…
• John Creswell W. (2018), Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and
Mixed approaches, SAGE Publication Ltd London (UK).
• Creswell J. (2012), Educational research , Planning, Conducting and
Evaluating Qualitative and Quantitative research 4th Ed. Person Education .
Inc
• Patricia L. (2017), Research Design Qualitative Quantitative and Mixed
method Art-Based and Community-Based Participatory research
approaches. The Duilford Press -New York.
• Sigmund G. (2020), Social Research methods, Qualitative Quantitative and
Mixed methods Approaches, New Delh SAGE.