The field of Research Methodology pertains to the scientific study of the methods employed in research. It involves a systematic approach to resolving research problems through the logical adoption of various steps. Methodology serves to facilitate comprehension not only of the outcomes of scientific inquiry, but also of the process itself. The primary objective of Research Methodology is to describe and analyze research methods, elucidate their limitations and resources, and clarify their presuppositions and consequences. Additionally, it aims to relate their potentialities to the ambiguous realm at the forefront of knowledge.
This provide valuable and basic information regarding Research Methodology, how to conduct Research work, types of research, advantages and limitation of Research. Very helpful to Personnels associated with Research work.
RESEARCH APPROACHES AND DESIGNS
A Research design is the framework or guide used for the planning, implementation and analysis of a study. It is a systematic plan of what is to be done, how it will be done and how the data will be analyzed.
ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN
Research design is also known as a blueprint thatresearchers select to carry out their research study,sometimes research design is used interchangeably withthe term methodology. Research design includes majorelements like:
The Approach
The Population, Sample and Sampling Technique
The Time, Place and Sources of Data collection
Tools and methods of data collection
Methods of data analysis
Research and experimental development (R&D)
Creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in order to increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of man, culture and society, and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications
Acceptable Methods in Action Researc.docxannetnash8266
Acceptable Methods in Action
Research
Schools of Public Service Leadership and Nursing and Health Sciences
Version 1.1 Effective January 2015
Capella University
225 South Sixth Street, Ninth Floor
Minneapolis, MN 55402
PSL/NHS ACCEPTABLE METHODS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of Contents .................................................................................................... 3
Action Research Acceptable Methods and Research Designs ................................... 4
Action Research is an Approach ................................................................................... 5
Qualitative Methods .................................................................................................... 5
Quantitative Methods .................................................................................................. 7
Mixed Methods ........................................................................................................... 8
References ................................................................................................................ 9
3
PSL/NHS ACCEPTABLE METHODS
ACTION RESEARCH ACCEPTABLE METHODS AND RESEARCH
DESIGNS
The overarching goal of Action Research (AR) is to collaborate with stakeholders and
participants in an effort to empower and effect social change. AR can be considered a
continuum ranging from appreciative inquiry to pure participatory research: appreciative
and cooperative inquiry (Heron, 1996; Reason & Rowan, 1981, Stowell & West, 1991,
Torbert, 1976, 2004), action research or action science (Argyris, 1970, 1980, 1994; Argyris,
Putnam, & Smith, 1985), participatory action research (Freire, 1970), and participatory
research (Lewin,1958). The common factor is that the participants or subjects are directly
involved in the research activities and the project solves a practice or problem that impacts
the participants (Springer, 2007).
Appreciative Action Participatory Participatory
Inquiry Research Action Research Research
Research Mutually Question Question generated Community generates and
Process generated
generated by the by the community. is in control of the process
question organization. Research process
Research controlled by
controlled and researcher
conducted by
researcher
Degree of Group Researcher asks High High
Participation process. for participation
Authentic
as needed
dialogue
Knowledge For practice Problem-solving Transform and Transformational
Generation improvement advance scientific
knowledge
Knowledge Advance Improve system. Community action. Social action.
Utilization practice. Self-
Advance
determination knowledge
Advance Development of critical
knowledge. consciousness.
Power Shared Held by Shared
Egalitarian
researcher
Outcomes Improvement
Solution
to Empowerment. Empowerment
of shared organizational Generation of community
of
practice problem. .
Dr Calzada delivered a lecture regarding Mixed Methods and Triangulation as a complex way in which research combines qualitative and quantitative sequential or concurrent approach.
This provide valuable and basic information regarding Research Methodology, how to conduct Research work, types of research, advantages and limitation of Research. Very helpful to Personnels associated with Research work.
RESEARCH APPROACHES AND DESIGNS
A Research design is the framework or guide used for the planning, implementation and analysis of a study. It is a systematic plan of what is to be done, how it will be done and how the data will be analyzed.
ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN
Research design is also known as a blueprint thatresearchers select to carry out their research study,sometimes research design is used interchangeably withthe term methodology. Research design includes majorelements like:
The Approach
The Population, Sample and Sampling Technique
The Time, Place and Sources of Data collection
Tools and methods of data collection
Methods of data analysis
Research and experimental development (R&D)
Creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in order to increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of man, culture and society, and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications
Acceptable Methods in Action Researc.docxannetnash8266
Acceptable Methods in Action
Research
Schools of Public Service Leadership and Nursing and Health Sciences
Version 1.1 Effective January 2015
Capella University
225 South Sixth Street, Ninth Floor
Minneapolis, MN 55402
PSL/NHS ACCEPTABLE METHODS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of Contents .................................................................................................... 3
Action Research Acceptable Methods and Research Designs ................................... 4
Action Research is an Approach ................................................................................... 5
Qualitative Methods .................................................................................................... 5
Quantitative Methods .................................................................................................. 7
Mixed Methods ........................................................................................................... 8
References ................................................................................................................ 9
3
PSL/NHS ACCEPTABLE METHODS
ACTION RESEARCH ACCEPTABLE METHODS AND RESEARCH
DESIGNS
The overarching goal of Action Research (AR) is to collaborate with stakeholders and
participants in an effort to empower and effect social change. AR can be considered a
continuum ranging from appreciative inquiry to pure participatory research: appreciative
and cooperative inquiry (Heron, 1996; Reason & Rowan, 1981, Stowell & West, 1991,
Torbert, 1976, 2004), action research or action science (Argyris, 1970, 1980, 1994; Argyris,
Putnam, & Smith, 1985), participatory action research (Freire, 1970), and participatory
research (Lewin,1958). The common factor is that the participants or subjects are directly
involved in the research activities and the project solves a practice or problem that impacts
the participants (Springer, 2007).
Appreciative Action Participatory Participatory
Inquiry Research Action Research Research
Research Mutually Question Question generated Community generates and
Process generated
generated by the by the community. is in control of the process
question organization. Research process
Research controlled by
controlled and researcher
conducted by
researcher
Degree of Group Researcher asks High High
Participation process. for participation
Authentic
as needed
dialogue
Knowledge For practice Problem-solving Transform and Transformational
Generation improvement advance scientific
knowledge
Knowledge Advance Improve system. Community action. Social action.
Utilization practice. Self-
Advance
determination knowledge
Advance Development of critical
knowledge. consciousness.
Power Shared Held by Shared
Egalitarian
researcher
Outcomes Improvement
Solution
to Empowerment. Empowerment
of shared organizational Generation of community
of
practice problem. .
Dr Calzada delivered a lecture regarding Mixed Methods and Triangulation as a complex way in which research combines qualitative and quantitative sequential or concurrent approach.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
(May 29th, 2024) Advancements in Intravital Microscopy- Insights for Preclini...Scintica Instrumentation
Intravital microscopy (IVM) is a powerful tool utilized to study cellular behavior over time and space in vivo. Much of our understanding of cell biology has been accomplished using various in vitro and ex vivo methods; however, these studies do not necessarily reflect the natural dynamics of biological processes. Unlike traditional cell culture or fixed tissue imaging, IVM allows for the ultra-fast high-resolution imaging of cellular processes over time and space and were studied in its natural environment. Real-time visualization of biological processes in the context of an intact organism helps maintain physiological relevance and provide insights into the progression of disease, response to treatments or developmental processes.
In this webinar we give an overview of advanced applications of the IVM system in preclinical research. IVIM technology is a provider of all-in-one intravital microscopy systems and solutions optimized for in vivo imaging of live animal models at sub-micron resolution. The system’s unique features and user-friendly software enables researchers to probe fast dynamic biological processes such as immune cell tracking, cell-cell interaction as well as vascularization and tumor metastasis with exceptional detail. This webinar will also give an overview of IVM being utilized in drug development, offering a view into the intricate interaction between drugs/nanoparticles and tissues in vivo and allows for the evaluation of therapeutic intervention in a variety of tissues and organs. This interdisciplinary collaboration continues to drive the advancements of novel therapeutic strategies.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCAiarMZDNhe1A3Rnpr_WkzA/videos
Thanks...!
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
Comparing Evolved Extractive Text Summary Scores of Bidirectional Encoder Rep...University of Maribor
Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
Seminar of U.V. Spectroscopy by SAMIR PANDASAMIR PANDA
Spectroscopy is a branch of science dealing the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflect spectroscopy in the UV-VIS spectral region.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is an analytical method that can measure the amount of light received by the analyte.
2. Research
• Research in common parlance
refers to a search for knowledge.
• Also define research as a scientific
and systematic search for
pertinent information on a specific
topic.
• “A careful investigation or inquiry
specially through search for new
facts in any branch of knowledge.”
• A “systematized effort to gain new
knowledge.
2
4. Qualitative Research
• Qualitative Research is primarily exploratory research. It is used to gain
an understanding of underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations.
• It provides insights into the problem or helps to develop ideas or
hypotheses for potential quantitative research.
• Qualitative Research is also used to uncover trends in thought and
opinions, and dive deeper into the problem. Qualitative data collection
methods vary using unstructured or semi-structured techniques.
• Some common methods include focus groups (group discussions),
individual interviews, and participation/observations.
4
5. Quantitative Research
• Quantitative Research is used to quantify the problem by way of
generating numerical data or data that can be transformed into usable
statistics.
• It is used to quantify attitudes, opinions, behaviours, and other defined
variables – and generalize results from a larger sample population.
• Quantitative Research uses measurable data to formulate facts and
uncover patterns in research.
• Quantitative data collection methods are much more structured than
Qualitative data collection methods.
• Quantitative data collection methods include various forms of surveys –
online surveys, paper surveys, mobile surveys and kiosk surveys, face-
to-face interviews, telephone interviews, longitudinal studies, website
interceptors, online polls, and systematic observations. 5
7. What Is Study Design?
Study design is a specific plan or
protocol for conducting the study,
which allows the investigator to
translate the conceptual hypothesis
into an operational one.
Study design refers to methodology
that is used to investigate a particular
phenomenon or a situation.
All study designs provide meaningful
information when used appropriately
and their strengths and limitations .
7
8. QUALITATIVE STUDY DESIGNS:
QUANTITATIVE STUDY DESIGNS QUALITATIVE STUDY DESIGNS
A scientific and empirical research method that is used to
generate numerical data, by employing statistical, logical
and mathematical technique is called quantitative research.
Qualitative research is a method of inquiry that develops
understanding on human and social sciences, to find the way
people think and feel.(exploratory research).
Quantitative study designs are specific, well structured,
have been tested for their validity and reliability, and can
be explicitly defined and recognised.
Study designs in qualitative research either do not have these
attributes or have them to a lesser degree & are less specific
and precise, and do not have the same structural depth.
8
9. QUANTITATIVE STUDY DESIGN QUALITATIVE STUDY DESIGN
In quantitative research, the measurement and classification
requirements of the information that is gathered demand
that study designs are more structured, rigid, fixed and
predetermined in their use to ensure accuracy in
measurement and classification.
The study designs mainly entail the selection of people from
whom the information, through an open frame of enquiry, is
explored and gathered. The parameters of the scope of a
study, and information gathering methods and processes, are
often flexible and evolving; hence, most qualitative designs
are not as structured and sequential as quantitative ones.
The study designs are often based on deductive.
Deductive reasoning starts with a general theory, statement,
or hypothesis and then works its way down to a conclusion
based on evidence
The study designs are often based on inductive. Inductive
reasoning starts with a small observation or question and
works it's way to a theory by examining the related issues.
Quantitative study designs have more clarity and distinction
between designs and methods of data collection.
In qualitative research there is an overlap between the two.
Some designs are basically methods of data collection.
9
10. QUANTITATIVE STUDY DESIGN QUALITATIVE STUDY DESIGN
In quantitative research they are more suited to finding out
the extent of the variation and diversity.
Study designs in qualitative research are more appropriate for
exploring the variation and diversity in any aspect of social
life
It is easier to check Researcher bias. Research bias, also called
experimenter bias, is a process where the scientists
performing the research ,influence the results, in order to
portray a certain outcome.
Because of flexibility and lack of control it is more difficult to
check researcher bias in qualitative studies.
In quantitative research enough detail about a study design is
provided for it to be replicated for verification and
reassurance
In qualitative research little attention is paid to study designs
or the other structural aspects of a study, hence the
replication of a study design becomes almost impossible. This
leads to the inability of the designs to produce findings that
can be replicated
10
11. • For good quantitative research it is important that you combine
quantitative skills with qualitative ones when ascertaining the nature
and extent of diversity and variation in a phenomenon.
• In the author’s opinion, the qualitative–quantitative–qualitative
approach to research is comprehensive and worth consideration. This
involves starting with qualitative methods to determine the spread of
diversity, using quantitative methods to quantify the spread and then
going back to qualitative to explain the observed patterns
11
13. Study designs in qualitative research
• Case study
• Oral history
• Focus groups/group interviews
• Participant observation
• Holistic research
• Community discussion forums
• Reflective journal log
• Commonly used philosophy-guided designs
Action research
Feminist research
Participatory and collaborative research enquiry
13
14. 1. Case study
• A case could be an individual, a
group, a community, an instance, an
episode, an event, a subgroup of a
population, a town or a city.
• It is a very useful design when
exploring an area where little is
known or where you want to have a
holistic understanding of the situation,
phenomenon, episode, site, group or
community.
• This design is of immense relevance
when the focus of a study is on
extensively exploring and
understanding rather than confirming
and quantifying. 14
15. Cont....
• It provides an overview and in-depth understanding of a case(s), process
and interactional dynamics within a unit of study but cannot claim to
make any generalisations to a population beyond cases similar to the one
studied.
• In this design your attempt is not to select a random sample but a case
that can provide you with as much information as possible to understand
the case in its totality.
• When studying an episode or an instance, you attempt to gather
information from all available sources so as to understand it in its
entirety.
15
16. Cont.…
• If the focus of your study is a group or community you should spend
sufficient time building a trust worthy rapport with its members before
collecting any information about them.
• Though you can use a single method, the use of multiple methods to
collect data is an important aspect of a case study, namely in-depth
interviewing, obtaining information from secondary records, gathering
data through observations, collecting information through focus groups
and group interviews, etc.
16
17. 2.Oral history
• Oral history is a method of data collection than a study design; however,
in qualitative research, this has become an approach to study perceptions,
experiences and accounts of an event or gathering historical knowledge as
viewed by individuals.
• It is a picture of something in someone’s own words.
• Oral history is a process of obtaining, recording, presenting and
interpreting historical or current information, based upon personal
experiences and opinions of some members of a study group or unit.
• These opinions or experiences could be based upon eye-witness evidence
or information passed on from other sources such as older people,
ancestors, folklore, stories.
17
18. Cont.…
• Oral history collects memories and
personal commentaries of
historical significance through
recorded interviews.
• In terms of design it is quite simple.
• You first decide what types of
account, experience, perception or
historical event you want to find
out about. Then you need to
identify the individuals or sources
(which could be difficult and time
consuming) that can best provide
you with the needed information.
• You then collect information from
them to be analysed and
interpreted. 18
19. 3.Focus groups/group interviews
• Focus groups are a form of strategy in qualitative research in which
attitudes, opinions or perceptions towards an issue, product, service or
programme are explored through a free and open discussion between
members of a group and the researcher.
• Group interviews are facilitated group discussions in which a researcher
raises issues or asks questions that stimulate discussion among members
of the group.
• it is a popular method for finding information in almost every
professional area and academic field.
• Social, political and behavioural scientists, market research and product
testing agencies, and urban and town planning experts often use this
design for a variety of situations. 19
20. Cont.…
• For example, in marketing research this design is widely used to find out
consumers’ opinion of and feedback on a product, their opinions on the
quality of the product, its acceptance and appeal, price and packaging,
how to improve the quality and increase the sale of the product, etc.
• Focus groups are also prevalent in formative and summative evaluations
and for developing social programmes and services.
• It is also a useful tool in social and urban planning for identifying issues,
options, development strategies, and future planning and development
directions.
• In its design it is very simple. You as a researcher select a group of people
who you think are best equipped to discuss what you want to explore.
• The group could comprise individuals drawn from a group of highly
trained professionals or average residents of a community depending
upon the objectives of the focus group. 20
21. Cont.….
• In the formation of a focus group, the size
of the group is an important consideration.
It should be neither too large nor too small
as this can impede upon the extent and
quality of the discussion.
• Approximately eight to ten people are the
optimal number for such discussion groups.
• You also need to identify carefully the
issues for discussion providing every
opportunity for additional relevant ones to
emerge.
• As a researcher you also need to decide, in
consultation with the group, the process of
recording the discussion.
• This may include fixing the times that the
group can meet to extensively discussing
the issues and arriving at agreements on
them.
21
22. Cont.….
• Records of the discussions then become the basis of analysis for findings and conclusions.
• The main difference between a focus group and a group interview is in the degree of
specificity with respect to the issues to be discussed.
• The issues discussed in focus groups are more specific and focused than in group
interviews and they are largely predetermined by the researcher.
• In a group interview you let the group members discuss whatever they want.
• However, your role as a researcher is to bring them back to the issues of interest as
identified by the group.
• The information generated can be detailed and rich and can be used to explore a vast
variety of issues.
• However, the disadvantage is that if the discussion is not carefully directed it may reflect
the opinion of those who have a tendency to dominate a group.
• This design is very useful for exploring the diversity in opinions on different issues but will
not help you if you want to find out the extent or magnitude of this diversity. 22
23. 4. Participant observation
• Participant observation is another strategy for gathering information about
a social interaction or a phenomenon in qualitative studies.
• This is usually done by developing a close interaction with members of a
group or ‘living’ in the situation which is being studied.
• Though predominantly a qualitative research design, it is also used in
quantitative research, depending upon how the information has been
generated and recorded.
• In qualitative research, an observation is always recorded in a descriptive
format whereas in quantitative research it is recorded either in categories
or on a scale.
23
24. Cont.…
• It can also be a combination of both – some categorisation and some
description or categorisation accompanied by a descriptive explanation.
• You can also change a descriptive recording into a categorical one through
analysis and classification.
• In addition to the observation itself, where you as an observer generate
information, the information can also be collected through other methods
such as informal interviewing, in-depth interviewing, group discussions,
previous documents, oral histories.
• Use of multiple methods will enhance the richness of the information
collected by participant observation.
• In its design it is simple
• A researcher get involved in the activities of the group, create a rapport with
group members and then, having sought their consent, keenly observe the
situation, interaction, site or phenomenon 24
25. Cont.….
• Make detailed notes of what you observe
in a format that best suits you as well as
the situation.
• Collect information using other methods of
data collection, if need be.
• Analyse records of your observations and
data collected by other means to draw
inferences and conclusions
• The main advantage of participant
observation is that as you spend sufficient
time with the group or in the situation, you
gain much deeper, richer and more
accurate information, but the main
disadvantage is that, if you are not very
careful, you can introduce your own bias.
25
26. 5.Holistic research
• The holistic approach to research is once again more a philosophy
than a study design.
• The design is based upon the philosophy that as a multiplicity of
factors interacts in our lives, we cannot understand a phenomenon
from just one or two perspectives.
• To understand a situation or phenomenon you need to look at it in its
totality – that is, holistically from every perspective.
• Use any design when exploring a situation from different perspectives
and the use of multiple methods is prevalent and desirable.
26
28. 6. Community discussion forums
• Community discussion forums are designed to
find opinions, attitudes and/or ideas of a
community with regard to community issues and
problems.
• It is one of the very popular ways of seeking a
community’s participation in deciding about
issues of concern to members of the community.
• Such forums are also used for a variety of other
reasons such as developing town planning
options and community health programmes for a
community, seeking participation of its members
in resolving issues relating to traffic
management, infrastructure development and
determining future directions for the area,
informing communities of new initiatives. 28
29. Cont.…
• Community forums are very similar to group discussions except that these are on a bigger
scale in terms of number of participants.
• Also, in group discussions you may select the participants, but for community forums there
is self-selection of the participants as they are open to everyone with an interest in the
issues or concerns.
• The researcher usually uses local media to inform the residents of a local community
about the forums.
• This is a useful design to find out the spread of issues, concerns, etc., at a community level.
• It is economical and quick but there are some disadvantages.
• For example, it is possible that a few people with a vested interest can dominate the
discussion in a forum and it is equally possible that on occasions there may be very low
attendance. Such situations may result in the discussion not reflecting the community
attitudes. 29
30. 8. Reflective journal log • Basically, this design entails keeping a
reflective journal log of your thoughts as a
researcher whenever you notice anything,
talk to someone, participate in an activity
or observe something that helps you
understand or add to whatever you are
trying to find out about.
• These reflective records then become the
basis of your findings and conclusions.
• You can have a reflective journal as the
only method of data collection or it can be
used in combination with other methods
such as interviewing, group interviews, or
secondary sources.
30
32. 9. Philosophy-guided designs
• There are a number of other approaches to research that have
acquired recognition, in terms of design and name, in the research
literature.
• Philosophical perspective in social research includes
Action research,
Feminist research,
Participatory research and collaborative enquiry.
• Strictly speaking, a piece of research within each of these could be
either quantitative or qualitative, though by many they are considered
dominantly as qualitative designs.
32
33. Cont.…
• For example, action research is guided by the philosophy that a piece of
research should be followed by some form of appropriate action to
achieve betterment in life or service.
• Feminist research is influenced by the philosophy that opposes and
challenges the dominant male bias in social science research; it seems to
believe that issues relating to women are best understood and
researched by women alone.
33
34. Cont.…
• For participatory research and collaborative enquiry, the
involvement of research participants or the community in the
research process is the underlying philosophy.
• One of the important aspects of all these ‘designs’ is that they
attempt to involve research participants in the research process.
• The research findings are then used to depict the current situation
with respect to certain issues or problems and help to form a sound
basis for strategy development to deal with them.
34
35. a. Action research
• As the name suggests, action research comprises two components:
action and research.
• Research is a means to action, either to improve your practice or to
take action to deal with a problem or an issue.
• Since action research is guided by the desire to take action, strictly
speaking it is not a design per se.
• Most action research is concerned with improving the quality of
service.
• It is carried out to identify areas of concern, develop and test
alternatives, and experiment with new approaches.
35
37. • Action research seems to follow two traditions.
• The British tradition tends to view action research as a means of
improvement and advancement of practice (Carr & Kemmis 1986),
whereas in the US tradition it is aimed at systematic collection of data that
provides the basis for social change (Bogdan & Biklen 1992).
• Action research, in common with participatory research and
collaborative enquiry, is based upon a philosophy of community
development that seeks the involvement of community members.
• Involvement and participation of a community, in the total process from
problem identification to implementation of solutions, are the two salient
features of all three approaches (action research, participatory research
and collaborative enquiry).
37
38. • In all three, data is collected through a research process, and changes are
achieved through action.
• This action is taken either by officials of an institution or the community
itself in the case of action research, or by members of a community in the
case of collaborative or participatory research.
• There are two focuses of action research:
1. An existing programme or intervention is studied in order to identify
possible areas of improvement in terms of enhanced efficacy and/or
efficiency. The findings become the basis of bringing about changes.
2. A professional identifies an unattended problem or unexplained issue in
the community or among a client group and research evidence is
gathered to justify the introduction of a new service or intervention.
Research techniques establish the prevalence of the problem or the
importance of an issue so that appropriate action can be taken to deal
with it. 38
39. b. Feminist research
• Feminist research is characterised by its feminist theory philosophical
base that underpins all enquiries and feminist concerns act as the
guiding framework. Feminist research differs from traditional research
in three ways:
1. Its main focus is the experiences and viewpoints of women. It uses
research methods aimed at exploring these.
2. It actively tries to remove or reduce the power imbalance between
the researcher and respondents.
3. The goal of feminist research is changing the social inequality
between men and women.
• In fact, feminist research may be classified as action research in the
area of gender inequality, using research techniques to create
awareness of women’s issues and concerns, and to foster action
promoting equality between gender.
• Any study design could be used in feminist research. 39
40. c. Participatory and collaborative research enquiry
• These are not designs per se but signify a philosophical perspective that
advocates the active involvement of research participants in the research
process.
• Participatory research is based upon the principle of minimising the ‘gap’
between the researcher and the research participants and increased
community involvement and participation to enhance the relevance of
the research findings to their needs.
• It is assumed that such involvement will increase the possibility of the
community accepting the research findings and, if need be, its willingness
and involvement in solving the problems and issues that confront it.
40
41. Cont.…
• You can undertake a quantitative or
qualitative study in these enquiries but
the main emphasis is on people’s
engagement, collaboration and
participation in the research process.
• In a way these designs are based on the
community development model where
engagement of a community by way of
consultation and participation in planning
and execution of research tasks is
imperative.
• In these designs you are not merely a
researcher but also a community
organiser seeking active participation of
the community.
41
42. Cont.…
• As a researcher you work at two different aspects:
1. community organisation and
2. research.
• Through community organisation you seek a community’s involvement
and participation in planning and execution of the research tasks and
share research findings with its members.
• In terms of research, your main responsibility is to develop, in
consultation with the community, the research tasks and procedures.
• Consultation with research participants is a continuous and integral
part of these designs.
42