The respiratory system aims for gas exchange, transporting oxygen to cells and carbon dioxide out of the body. It includes external respiration in the lungs, gas transport in blood, and internal respiration in tissues. The document describes the mechanics of respiration including the roles of the diaphragm and ribs in inhalation. It discusses lung volumes, capacities, compliance, surface tension, and the factors affecting gas exchange between the alveoli and blood by diffusion.
Pulmonary ventilation involves the movement of air into and out of the alveoli through the nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles. Muscle activity changes the volume of the thoracic cavity, altering intrapulmonary and intrapleural pressures to draw air into the lungs during inhalation and expel it during exhalation. Airflow is affected by airway resistance, which can change based on bronchiole diameter, and lung compliance, maintained by elastic tissues and surfactants. Alveolar ventilation determines the renewal of air in the gas exchange areas to influence oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations.
This document discusses the mechanics of breathing including the muscles involved in inspiration and expiration, pressures in the thoracic cavity, lung volumes and capacities, and properties of the lungs and chest wall. It explains that inspiration is an active process due to contraction of inspiratory muscles like the diaphragm and external intercostals, while expiration is usually passive due to elastic recoil of the lungs. Contraction of these muscles decreases intrapleural pressure and expands the lungs, decreasing intrapulmonary pressure and allowing air to flow in. It also discusses pressures like intrapleural, transmural and alveolar pressures that influence breathing, as well as lung compliance, airway resistance, and the role of surfactant
The document provides information on the respiratory system. It discusses:
1. The respiratory system functions to exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide between the atmosphere and tissues through breathing and gas diffusion. It is divided into an upper and lower system.
2. The lower respiratory system includes the lungs, which are made up of conducting and respiratory zones. Gas exchange occurs in the alveoli via diffusion driven by partial pressures.
3. Respiration includes pulmonary ventilation, external respiration in the lungs, and internal respiration in tissues. Various tests like spirometry and diffusion testing evaluate lung function and gas exchange ability.
Role of respiratory muscles and various pressures in pulmonary ventilationakash chauhan
The document discusses respiratory muscles, pulmonary ventilation, and pressures involved in breathing. It describes:
1) The major inspiratory muscles that expand the thoracic cavity including the diaphragm and ribs, inducing inhalation. Expiratory muscles compress the thorax during exhalation.
2) Pulmonary ventilation is the volume of air inhaled and exhaled per minute at rest, approximately 6-7 liters.
3) Pressures involved in breathing include the intra-alveolar pressure that decreases during inhalation and increases slightly during exhalation, and the negative intra-pleural pressure that helps keep the lungs inflated. Changes in these pressures and volumes drive air flow into and out
This document provides an overview of the applied physiology of the respiratory system. It discusses topics such as respiration, the respiratory passages, pulmonary circulation, mechanics of respiration, pulmonary volumes and capacities, ventilation, dead space, regulation of respiration, and respiratory disorders. Measurement techniques for lung function are also covered, including spirometry and plethysmography. Restrictive and obstructive respiratory disorders are defined. Various respiratory conditions and disturbances are listed and described briefly.
This document discusses physiology of respiration, including lung volumes and capacities, the muscles involved in breathing, pulmonary ventilation, gas exchange, and transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood. It covers topics like tidal volume, minute ventilation, alveolar ventilation rate, the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide in inhaled and exhaled air, and how diffusion and Henry's law govern gas exchange between the alveoli and blood in the pulmonary capillaries.
This document discusses pulmonary ventilation, which includes the mechanics and processes of breathing. It covers:
1) How breathing is accomplished by the diaphragm and rib cage moving to expand the lungs.
2) How air moves into and out of the lungs due to pressure differences between the alveoli and pleural space.
3) The role of surfactant in reducing surface tension and improving lung compliance.
4) Measurements of lung volumes and capacities using spirometry to assess pulmonary function.
Pulmonary ventilation, also known as breathing, is the process of air flowing into and out of the lungs. During inspiration, air enters the respiratory system through the mouth and nose, then travels through the pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and bronchioles before reaching the alveoli in the lungs where gas exchange occurs. Expiration is the opposite process where air is exhaled from the lungs out through the mouth and nose. The diaphragm and intercostal muscles control inspiration and expiration by fluctuating the pressure and volume of the chest cavity.
Pulmonary ventilation involves the movement of air into and out of the alveoli through the nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles. Muscle activity changes the volume of the thoracic cavity, altering intrapulmonary and intrapleural pressures to draw air into the lungs during inhalation and expel it during exhalation. Airflow is affected by airway resistance, which can change based on bronchiole diameter, and lung compliance, maintained by elastic tissues and surfactants. Alveolar ventilation determines the renewal of air in the gas exchange areas to influence oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations.
This document discusses the mechanics of breathing including the muscles involved in inspiration and expiration, pressures in the thoracic cavity, lung volumes and capacities, and properties of the lungs and chest wall. It explains that inspiration is an active process due to contraction of inspiratory muscles like the diaphragm and external intercostals, while expiration is usually passive due to elastic recoil of the lungs. Contraction of these muscles decreases intrapleural pressure and expands the lungs, decreasing intrapulmonary pressure and allowing air to flow in. It also discusses pressures like intrapleural, transmural and alveolar pressures that influence breathing, as well as lung compliance, airway resistance, and the role of surfactant
The document provides information on the respiratory system. It discusses:
1. The respiratory system functions to exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide between the atmosphere and tissues through breathing and gas diffusion. It is divided into an upper and lower system.
2. The lower respiratory system includes the lungs, which are made up of conducting and respiratory zones. Gas exchange occurs in the alveoli via diffusion driven by partial pressures.
3. Respiration includes pulmonary ventilation, external respiration in the lungs, and internal respiration in tissues. Various tests like spirometry and diffusion testing evaluate lung function and gas exchange ability.
Role of respiratory muscles and various pressures in pulmonary ventilationakash chauhan
The document discusses respiratory muscles, pulmonary ventilation, and pressures involved in breathing. It describes:
1) The major inspiratory muscles that expand the thoracic cavity including the diaphragm and ribs, inducing inhalation. Expiratory muscles compress the thorax during exhalation.
2) Pulmonary ventilation is the volume of air inhaled and exhaled per minute at rest, approximately 6-7 liters.
3) Pressures involved in breathing include the intra-alveolar pressure that decreases during inhalation and increases slightly during exhalation, and the negative intra-pleural pressure that helps keep the lungs inflated. Changes in these pressures and volumes drive air flow into and out
This document provides an overview of the applied physiology of the respiratory system. It discusses topics such as respiration, the respiratory passages, pulmonary circulation, mechanics of respiration, pulmonary volumes and capacities, ventilation, dead space, regulation of respiration, and respiratory disorders. Measurement techniques for lung function are also covered, including spirometry and plethysmography. Restrictive and obstructive respiratory disorders are defined. Various respiratory conditions and disturbances are listed and described briefly.
This document discusses physiology of respiration, including lung volumes and capacities, the muscles involved in breathing, pulmonary ventilation, gas exchange, and transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood. It covers topics like tidal volume, minute ventilation, alveolar ventilation rate, the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide in inhaled and exhaled air, and how diffusion and Henry's law govern gas exchange between the alveoli and blood in the pulmonary capillaries.
This document discusses pulmonary ventilation, which includes the mechanics and processes of breathing. It covers:
1) How breathing is accomplished by the diaphragm and rib cage moving to expand the lungs.
2) How air moves into and out of the lungs due to pressure differences between the alveoli and pleural space.
3) The role of surfactant in reducing surface tension and improving lung compliance.
4) Measurements of lung volumes and capacities using spirometry to assess pulmonary function.
Pulmonary ventilation, also known as breathing, is the process of air flowing into and out of the lungs. During inspiration, air enters the respiratory system through the mouth and nose, then travels through the pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and bronchioles before reaching the alveoli in the lungs where gas exchange occurs. Expiration is the opposite process where air is exhaled from the lungs out through the mouth and nose. The diaphragm and intercostal muscles control inspiration and expiration by fluctuating the pressure and volume of the chest cavity.
introduction>muscles of respiration>muscles are involved>respiratory pressure>movement of thoracic cage and lungs during respiration>movement of expiration
The document summarizes respiration in the human body. It describes how:
During inhalation, the internal intercostal muscles relax and external intercostal muscles contract, expanding the rib cage and increasing the thoracic cavity volume. The diaphragm also contracts, lowering pressure in the alveoli and causing air to move in. During exhalation, the actions reverse, decreasing thoracic cavity volume and raising alveolar pressure to push air out.
Oxygen diffuses into the blood in the alveoli due to higher partial pressure, while carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood into the alveoli due to lower partial pressure. Oxygen is transported through the blood bound to hemoglobin
Mechanics of breathing is a completely mechanical process involving changes in thoracic cavity volume and pressure. During inspiration, contraction of respiratory muscles increases thoracic cavity volume, lowering intrapulmonary pressure and allowing air to flow into the lungs. During expiration, relaxation of muscles decreases thoracic cavity volume, raising intrapulmonary pressure and causing air to flow out. Intrapleural pressure is always lower than atmospheric pressure due to lymphatic drainage and lung elasticity, preventing lung collapse.
This document provides an overview of the physiology of respiration. It is broken down into several sections:
1. The respiratory system consists of the upper airway, conducting airways, and alveolar airways in the lungs.
2. The upper airway filters particulates and warms/humidifies incoming air. The conducting airways branch and transport gas through pseudostratified epithelium.
3. The alveolar airways include alveoli lined with pneumocytes and surrounded by capillaries for gas exchange. Respiratory muscles including the diaphragm and intercostals facilitate breathing movements.
This document summarizes the mechanics of breathing. It describes normal breathing rates and types of abnormal breathing. It discusses the boundaries of the thoracic cage and the two pleura layers. Breathing involves both positive pressure from inspiration and negative pressure from expiration. Inspiration is an active process using the diaphragm and intercostal muscles while expiration is usually passive. Gas exchange occurs through pressure gradients in the lungs. The document outlines the muscles, pressures, and mechanics involved in inspiration and expiration.
Respiratory system pulmonary ventilation.sofian awamleh.pptx مختصرHamzeh AlBattikhi
The document summarizes the structure and function of the respiratory system. It describes the major parts including the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs and alveoli. It explains how breathing works through the contraction of the diaphragm and movement of the ribs. Gas exchange occurs in the alveoli through diffusion. Various pressures and volumes related to breathing are also defined. Pulmonary ventilation involves the inflow and outflow of air and is regulated by the nervous system and local factors.
This document provides an overview of respiratory physiology, including:
1) The structures and functions of the conducting and respiratory zones of the lungs. Gas exchange occurs between air and blood in the alveoli.
2) The mechanics of breathing, including the roles of the diaphragm, intercostal muscles, and pleural membranes in inspiration and expiration.
3) Measurements of pulmonary function including lung volumes and capacities. Pulmonary disorders can be restrictive or obstructive.
1. The diaphragm and external intercostal muscles are the primary muscles of inspiration. Expiration is normally passive due to lung elasticity.
2. Lung compliance depends on factors like lung volume, blood volume, and disease processes. Surface tension forces from pulmonary surfactant reduce alveolar collapse.
3. Airway resistance arises from both laminar and turbulent gas flow. Increased resistance occurs from bronchospasm, secretions, and airway collapse related to low lung volume or forced exhalation.
Pulmonary ventilation is the mechanical process of air flowing in and out of the lungs due to pressure gradients and volume changes caused by contraction of respiratory muscles during inspiration and expiration. It serves to continually renew the air in the gas exchange areas of the lungs. In a healthy adult, pulmonary ventilation is approximately 6-7 liters per minute through tidal breathing of 500ml 12 times per minute, resulting in alveolar ventilation of around 4200ml per minute after accounting for the 150ml dead space. Pulmonary ventilation, alveolar ventilation, respiratory cycles, and the mechanics of respiration including respiratory muscles, pleural pressures, and pressure relationships are discussed in detail.
The document discusses the process of respiration in four parts:
1. Pulmonary ventilation involves breathing air in and out of the lungs through inhalation and exhalation.
2. External respiration is the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the alveoli in the lungs and blood in the pulmonary capillaries.
3. Internal respiration is the exchange of gases between blood in the systemic capillaries and tissue cells throughout the body.
4. Respiration is regulated through various pulmonary volumes including tidal volume, vital capacity, functional residual capacity, and total lung capacity.
Respiratory physiology by Dr RamKrishnaram krishna
The document discusses respiratory physiology, including:
1) The anatomy of the respiratory system including the upper and lower respiratory tract.
2) Pulmonary ventilation driven by pressure differences caused by contraction of respiratory muscles.
3) Gas exchange that occurs via diffusion between alveoli and capillaries in the lungs. Oxygen binds to hemoglobin while carbon dioxide is transported as bicarbonate.
4) Controls of respiration centered in the medulla that regulate rate and depth of breathing in response to changes in oxygen and carbon dioxide levels.
1. Static lung volumes include tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve volume, residual volume, vital capacity, inspiratory capacity, functional residual capacity, and total lung capacity.
2. Dynamic lung volumes include maximum voluntary ventilation and forced expiratory volume, which measure the maximum volume of air that can be moved in and out of the lungs over time.
3. Pulmonary ventilation is the amount of air inhaled or exhaled during normal breathing per minute, while alveolar ventilation is the volume of fresh air entering the respiratory zone and participating in gas exchange.
The document discusses pulmonary ventilation and the steps of respiration. It describes how pulmonary ventilation occurs through the alternating contraction and relaxation of respiratory muscles that create pressure differences, causing air to flow into and out of the lungs. The key muscles involved in inhalation are the diaphragm and external intercostals, while exhalation occurs passively through elastic recoil. Factors like surface tension, lung compliance, and airway resistance also affect pulmonary ventilation.
This document summarizes the key processes and mechanics of external respiration. It discusses:
1) The five main processes of respiration including external respiration, gas exchange in the lungs, blood gas transport, tissue gas exchange, and internal respiration in cells.
2) How the diaphragm and chest wall muscles drive inhalation and exhalation through changes in intrapleural pressure and thoracic cavity volume.
3) The inspiratory and expiratory muscles involved and the mechanics of costal movement during breathing.
- Respiration includes ventilation (breathing), gas exchange between air and blood in the lungs, and oxygen utilization through cellular respiration.
- During inhalation, oxygen diffuses from air into the blood in the lungs and carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the air. Exhalation is driven by the elastic recoil of the lungs.
- The lungs contain over 300 million alveoli which have a large surface area for gas exchange and are only one cell thick, facilitating diffusion. Surfactant produced in the alveoli reduces surface tension to keep alveoli open during exhalation.
The document discusses the mechanism of respiration, which involves breathing and the exchange of gases through diffusion in the alveoli. Inspiration is an active process where inhaling decreases pressure and draws air into the lungs. Expiration is passive as exhaling increases pressure and expels air. Oxygen diffuses into blood and tissues while carbon dioxide diffuses out, carried by hemoglobin, plasma, and bicarbonate ions to the lungs.
This document discusses lung anatomy and function, including:
- The structure of the airways, with cartilage rings in the trachea and smooth muscle in the bronchi.
- Pulmonary circulation, with low-pressure, highly compliant arteries and veins.
- Pressure changes during breathing that cause air to flow into and out of the lungs.
- Elastic recoil of lung tissue and surface tension forces that normally cause the lungs to collapse.
- Surfactants that reduce surface tension and help keep alveoli open.
- Pulmonary volumes such as tidal volume and functional residual capacity.
- How alveolar ventilation is calculated based on tidal volume and dead space.
The document summarizes key aspects of respiratory physiology, including the four main functions of respiration, the mechanisms of pulmonary ventilation, gas exchange, and regulation of breathing. It describes the respiratory cycle of inspiration and expiration, how pressure gradients are established via changes in thoracic cavity size, and the roles of muscles like the diaphragm and intercostals. Pressure and volume changes during inhalation and exhalation are provided. Pulmonary volumes and capacities are defined, including vital capacity and functional residual capacity. Disorders like COPD and pulmonary fibrosis are also mentioned.
Respiratory physiology.pptx by DR Girish JainGirish jain
The document provides information on respiratory physiology. It discusses:
1. The process of respiration which includes ventilation, gas exchange, and oxygen utilization. Gas exchange occurs via diffusion in the lungs and tissues.
2. The types of respiration - external respiration which is the exchange of gases between the lungs and environment, and internal respiration which is the exchange between tissues and blood.
3. The anatomy of the respiratory system including the upper airways, conducting airways, respiratory airways, and the terminal respiratory unit where gas exchange occurs.
4. The muscles of respiration including the diaphragm and intercostal muscles which are involved in inhalation, and abdominal muscles which can aid exhalation
The document discusses the mechanics of respiration including the goals, functions, external and internal processes, pulmonary ventilation, lung structure, respiratory mechanics, the breathing cycle, muscles involved in inspiration and expiration, lung volumes, elastic forces, and factors like compliance, surface tension, and surfactant that influence ventilation. It provides detailed information on the physiological processes and components involved in respiration.
introduction>muscles of respiration>muscles are involved>respiratory pressure>movement of thoracic cage and lungs during respiration>movement of expiration
The document summarizes respiration in the human body. It describes how:
During inhalation, the internal intercostal muscles relax and external intercostal muscles contract, expanding the rib cage and increasing the thoracic cavity volume. The diaphragm also contracts, lowering pressure in the alveoli and causing air to move in. During exhalation, the actions reverse, decreasing thoracic cavity volume and raising alveolar pressure to push air out.
Oxygen diffuses into the blood in the alveoli due to higher partial pressure, while carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood into the alveoli due to lower partial pressure. Oxygen is transported through the blood bound to hemoglobin
Mechanics of breathing is a completely mechanical process involving changes in thoracic cavity volume and pressure. During inspiration, contraction of respiratory muscles increases thoracic cavity volume, lowering intrapulmonary pressure and allowing air to flow into the lungs. During expiration, relaxation of muscles decreases thoracic cavity volume, raising intrapulmonary pressure and causing air to flow out. Intrapleural pressure is always lower than atmospheric pressure due to lymphatic drainage and lung elasticity, preventing lung collapse.
This document provides an overview of the physiology of respiration. It is broken down into several sections:
1. The respiratory system consists of the upper airway, conducting airways, and alveolar airways in the lungs.
2. The upper airway filters particulates and warms/humidifies incoming air. The conducting airways branch and transport gas through pseudostratified epithelium.
3. The alveolar airways include alveoli lined with pneumocytes and surrounded by capillaries for gas exchange. Respiratory muscles including the diaphragm and intercostals facilitate breathing movements.
This document summarizes the mechanics of breathing. It describes normal breathing rates and types of abnormal breathing. It discusses the boundaries of the thoracic cage and the two pleura layers. Breathing involves both positive pressure from inspiration and negative pressure from expiration. Inspiration is an active process using the diaphragm and intercostal muscles while expiration is usually passive. Gas exchange occurs through pressure gradients in the lungs. The document outlines the muscles, pressures, and mechanics involved in inspiration and expiration.
Respiratory system pulmonary ventilation.sofian awamleh.pptx مختصرHamzeh AlBattikhi
The document summarizes the structure and function of the respiratory system. It describes the major parts including the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs and alveoli. It explains how breathing works through the contraction of the diaphragm and movement of the ribs. Gas exchange occurs in the alveoli through diffusion. Various pressures and volumes related to breathing are also defined. Pulmonary ventilation involves the inflow and outflow of air and is regulated by the nervous system and local factors.
This document provides an overview of respiratory physiology, including:
1) The structures and functions of the conducting and respiratory zones of the lungs. Gas exchange occurs between air and blood in the alveoli.
2) The mechanics of breathing, including the roles of the diaphragm, intercostal muscles, and pleural membranes in inspiration and expiration.
3) Measurements of pulmonary function including lung volumes and capacities. Pulmonary disorders can be restrictive or obstructive.
1. The diaphragm and external intercostal muscles are the primary muscles of inspiration. Expiration is normally passive due to lung elasticity.
2. Lung compliance depends on factors like lung volume, blood volume, and disease processes. Surface tension forces from pulmonary surfactant reduce alveolar collapse.
3. Airway resistance arises from both laminar and turbulent gas flow. Increased resistance occurs from bronchospasm, secretions, and airway collapse related to low lung volume or forced exhalation.
Pulmonary ventilation is the mechanical process of air flowing in and out of the lungs due to pressure gradients and volume changes caused by contraction of respiratory muscles during inspiration and expiration. It serves to continually renew the air in the gas exchange areas of the lungs. In a healthy adult, pulmonary ventilation is approximately 6-7 liters per minute through tidal breathing of 500ml 12 times per minute, resulting in alveolar ventilation of around 4200ml per minute after accounting for the 150ml dead space. Pulmonary ventilation, alveolar ventilation, respiratory cycles, and the mechanics of respiration including respiratory muscles, pleural pressures, and pressure relationships are discussed in detail.
The document discusses the process of respiration in four parts:
1. Pulmonary ventilation involves breathing air in and out of the lungs through inhalation and exhalation.
2. External respiration is the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the alveoli in the lungs and blood in the pulmonary capillaries.
3. Internal respiration is the exchange of gases between blood in the systemic capillaries and tissue cells throughout the body.
4. Respiration is regulated through various pulmonary volumes including tidal volume, vital capacity, functional residual capacity, and total lung capacity.
Respiratory physiology by Dr RamKrishnaram krishna
The document discusses respiratory physiology, including:
1) The anatomy of the respiratory system including the upper and lower respiratory tract.
2) Pulmonary ventilation driven by pressure differences caused by contraction of respiratory muscles.
3) Gas exchange that occurs via diffusion between alveoli and capillaries in the lungs. Oxygen binds to hemoglobin while carbon dioxide is transported as bicarbonate.
4) Controls of respiration centered in the medulla that regulate rate and depth of breathing in response to changes in oxygen and carbon dioxide levels.
1. Static lung volumes include tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve volume, residual volume, vital capacity, inspiratory capacity, functional residual capacity, and total lung capacity.
2. Dynamic lung volumes include maximum voluntary ventilation and forced expiratory volume, which measure the maximum volume of air that can be moved in and out of the lungs over time.
3. Pulmonary ventilation is the amount of air inhaled or exhaled during normal breathing per minute, while alveolar ventilation is the volume of fresh air entering the respiratory zone and participating in gas exchange.
The document discusses pulmonary ventilation and the steps of respiration. It describes how pulmonary ventilation occurs through the alternating contraction and relaxation of respiratory muscles that create pressure differences, causing air to flow into and out of the lungs. The key muscles involved in inhalation are the diaphragm and external intercostals, while exhalation occurs passively through elastic recoil. Factors like surface tension, lung compliance, and airway resistance also affect pulmonary ventilation.
This document summarizes the key processes and mechanics of external respiration. It discusses:
1) The five main processes of respiration including external respiration, gas exchange in the lungs, blood gas transport, tissue gas exchange, and internal respiration in cells.
2) How the diaphragm and chest wall muscles drive inhalation and exhalation through changes in intrapleural pressure and thoracic cavity volume.
3) The inspiratory and expiratory muscles involved and the mechanics of costal movement during breathing.
- Respiration includes ventilation (breathing), gas exchange between air and blood in the lungs, and oxygen utilization through cellular respiration.
- During inhalation, oxygen diffuses from air into the blood in the lungs and carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the air. Exhalation is driven by the elastic recoil of the lungs.
- The lungs contain over 300 million alveoli which have a large surface area for gas exchange and are only one cell thick, facilitating diffusion. Surfactant produced in the alveoli reduces surface tension to keep alveoli open during exhalation.
The document discusses the mechanism of respiration, which involves breathing and the exchange of gases through diffusion in the alveoli. Inspiration is an active process where inhaling decreases pressure and draws air into the lungs. Expiration is passive as exhaling increases pressure and expels air. Oxygen diffuses into blood and tissues while carbon dioxide diffuses out, carried by hemoglobin, plasma, and bicarbonate ions to the lungs.
This document discusses lung anatomy and function, including:
- The structure of the airways, with cartilage rings in the trachea and smooth muscle in the bronchi.
- Pulmonary circulation, with low-pressure, highly compliant arteries and veins.
- Pressure changes during breathing that cause air to flow into and out of the lungs.
- Elastic recoil of lung tissue and surface tension forces that normally cause the lungs to collapse.
- Surfactants that reduce surface tension and help keep alveoli open.
- Pulmonary volumes such as tidal volume and functional residual capacity.
- How alveolar ventilation is calculated based on tidal volume and dead space.
The document summarizes key aspects of respiratory physiology, including the four main functions of respiration, the mechanisms of pulmonary ventilation, gas exchange, and regulation of breathing. It describes the respiratory cycle of inspiration and expiration, how pressure gradients are established via changes in thoracic cavity size, and the roles of muscles like the diaphragm and intercostals. Pressure and volume changes during inhalation and exhalation are provided. Pulmonary volumes and capacities are defined, including vital capacity and functional residual capacity. Disorders like COPD and pulmonary fibrosis are also mentioned.
Respiratory physiology.pptx by DR Girish JainGirish jain
The document provides information on respiratory physiology. It discusses:
1. The process of respiration which includes ventilation, gas exchange, and oxygen utilization. Gas exchange occurs via diffusion in the lungs and tissues.
2. The types of respiration - external respiration which is the exchange of gases between the lungs and environment, and internal respiration which is the exchange between tissues and blood.
3. The anatomy of the respiratory system including the upper airways, conducting airways, respiratory airways, and the terminal respiratory unit where gas exchange occurs.
4. The muscles of respiration including the diaphragm and intercostal muscles which are involved in inhalation, and abdominal muscles which can aid exhalation
The document discusses the mechanics of respiration including the goals, functions, external and internal processes, pulmonary ventilation, lung structure, respiratory mechanics, the breathing cycle, muscles involved in inspiration and expiration, lung volumes, elastic forces, and factors like compliance, surface tension, and surfactant that influence ventilation. It provides detailed information on the physiological processes and components involved in respiration.
The document discusses the mechanics of breathing, including:
- Inspiration is an active process requiring contraction of the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles to expand the thoracic cavity and decrease pressure, allowing air to rush in. Expiration is passive as the lungs recoil.
- The diaphragm and external intercostals are the primary inspiratory muscles, contributing 75% and 25% respectively. Accessory muscles can also assist during forced inspiration.
- Factors like CO2 levels, respiratory diseases, altitude, and chemicals can affect breathing rate through chemical and nervous control systems.
This document discusses the mechanics of respiration. It describes the main inspiratory and expiratory muscles, as well as factors that influence lung volumes like the diaphragm and intercostal muscles. Pressures involved in respiration are defined, such as intrapleural, intra-alveolar, and transpulmonary pressures. The document also covers the collapsing tendency of lungs and factors like surface tension and surfactant that prevent collapse. Compliance of the lungs and work of breathing during different levels of exertion are summarized as well.
The document discusses respiratory physiology and the respiratory system. It covers several key concepts:
1. It describes Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures and how total gas pressure equals the sum of partial pressures of individual gases.
2. It explains the mechanics of breathing including the roles of the diaphragm and rib cage. Inspiration is an active process requiring work.
3. It discusses the lungs and alveoli where gas exchange occurs between the blood in pulmonary capillaries and air in alveoli. Surfactant reduces surface tension in the alveoli to prevent their collapse.
4. Several gas laws related to respiration are also covered such as Boyle's Law, Charles' Law,
The document summarizes pulmonary ventilation and lung volumes and capacities. It discusses:
1) The basic functions of the respiratory system including breathing (pulmonary ventilation) which draws gases into and out of the lungs via inhalation and exhalation.
2) The mechanics of breathing including the roles of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles in inspiration and expiration as well as intrapulmonary, intrapleural, and transpulmonary pressures.
3) Lung volumes including tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve volume, residual volume, and total lung capacity.
This document provides an overview of respiratory physiology and acute respiratory failure. It discusses:
1. The functions of the respiratory system including gas exchange, acid-base balance, phonation, pulmonary defense, and metabolism.
2. The three components of respiration - ventilation, gas exchange, and oxygen utilization. It describes the mechanics of ventilation and gas exchange via diffusion.
3. The conducting and respiratory zones of the lungs and structures involved in gas exchange like alveoli and surfactant.
4. Control of respiration via brainstem centers that regulate rhythmic breathing and chemoreceptors that sense blood gases and pH to modulate breathing rate and depth.
This document provides an overview of respiratory physiology and acute respiratory failure. It discusses:
1. The functions of the respiratory system including gas exchange, acid-base balance, phonation, pulmonary defense, and metabolism.
2. The three components of respiration - ventilation, gas exchange, and oxygen utilization. It describes the mechanics of ventilation and gas exchange via diffusion.
3. The conducting and respiratory zones of the lungs and structures involved in gas exchange like alveoli and surfactant.
4. Control of respiration via brainstem centers that regulate breathing rhythm and respond to chemoreceptors monitoring blood gases.
This document provides an overview of respiratory physiology and acute respiratory failure. It discusses the functions of the respiratory system including gas exchange, acid-base balance, and pulmonary defense. The three components of respiration - ventilation, gas exchange, and oxygen utilization - are defined. Key concepts around ventilation, the conducting and respiratory zones, alveoli, pulmonary circulation, innervation, and thoracic cavity pressures are summarized. Factors that influence lung compliance, elasticity, and surface tension are also reviewed.
This document provides an overview of respiratory physiology and acute respiratory failure. It discusses the functions of the respiratory system including gas exchange, acid-base balance, and pulmonary defense. The three components of respiration - ventilation, gas exchange, and oxygen utilization - are defined. Key concepts around ventilation, the conducting and respiratory zones, alveoli, pulmonary circulation, innervation, and thoracic cavity pressures are summarized. Factors that influence lung compliance, elasticity, and surface tension are also reviewed.
VENTILATION AND PERFUSION FOR NURSING ANATOMYSongoma John
This document discusses pulmonary ventilation, perfusion, and diffusion. It defines ventilation as the inhalation and exhalation of air between the atmosphere and lungs due to pressure changes from respiratory muscle contraction. Perfusion is defined as the flow of blood through the pulmonary capillaries. Diffusion is the passive movement of gases between the alveoli, blood, and tissues down partial pressure gradients. An optimal ventilation-perfusion ratio is required for efficient gas exchange. Factors like pH, temperature, and BPG affect oxygen binding to hemoglobin.
the beautiful thing about learning is that no one can take it away from you...so study and hard .....i hope it is helpful to you and its useful for study...best of luck
This document provides an overview of respiratory physiology, including:
1. The functions of the respiratory system involve gas exchange through pulmonary ventilation, alveolar ventilation, gas transport in the blood, and exchange in tissues.
2. The anatomical components of the respiratory system include the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli.
3. Pulmonary ventilation is achieved through inspiration and expiration driven by changes in pressure and the contraction of respiratory muscles like the diaphragm and intercostals.
The document discusses various aspects of respiration physiology:
1. Respiration involves the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the atmosphere and tissues, either through external respiration in the lungs or internal respiration in tissues.
2. The respiratory system includes the lungs, which are made up of respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, sacs and alveoli for gas exchange.
3. Respiration occurs through inspiration and expiration, driven by muscles of respiration and changes in thoracic pressure and volume. Gas exchange takes place through pulmonary ventilation and diffusion between alveoli and blood.
This document summarizes pulmonary physiology including mechanics of breathing, lung volumes and capacities, pressure changes during breathing, forced expiration in COPD, transmural pressures, pulmonary compliance, hysteresis, diffusion of gases, V/Q ratios, and O2 and CO2 transport. Key points include that in COPD, forced expiration can cause airway collapse due to decreased alveolar pressure, and that V/Q defects and right-to-left shunts can cause hypoxemia. O2 is transported primarily bound to hemoglobin while CO2 is transported primarily dissolved in plasma.
The respiratory system works with the cardiovascular system to oxygenate the blood and remove carbon dioxide. It is composed of the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, and related structures. The nose warms and moisturizes inhaled air before it reaches the lungs. Gas exchange occurs in the alveoli, where oxygen diffuses into blood and carbon dioxide diffuses out. The respiratory center controls breathing and is sensitive to carbon dioxide and oxygen levels in the blood.
The document discusses respiratory physiology, including:
1. Gas exchange occurs between air and capillaries in the lungs and between systemic capillaries and tissues, maintaining oxygen and carbon dioxide levels.
2. The lungs contain over 300 million alveoli that have a large surface area for gas exchange. Each alveolus is lined by a single cell layer for efficient diffusion.
3. Respiration includes ventilation (breathing), gas exchange, and oxygen utilization in cellular respiration. Ventilation is driven by pressure differences induced by changes in lung volume during inspiration and expiration.
This document provides an overview of respiratory physiology. It discusses the processes of external and internal respiration, ventilation, lung volumes and capacities, pressures and gradients, spontaneous and positive pressure ventilation, lung characteristics, compliance, elastic forces, surface tension, surfactant, ventilation, perfusion, gas tensions, the oxygen cascade, oxygen transport via dissolved oxygen and hemoglobin, and factors affecting hemoglobin dissociation.
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1. Respiratory System
• Aim:
• Gas exchange: O2 to the cells & CO2 out of the
body.
• Regulation of pH of extracellular fluid
• Respiration: the different processes by which we
finally obtain energy from different food stuffs
2. Respiration processes includes:
• 1- external respiration:
• a) pulmonary ventilation; gas exchange between lung
& atmosphere
• b) pulmonary respiration; gas exchange between
alveoli & blood
• 2- gas transport; O2 & CO2 transport in the blood &
body fluids to & from the cells
• 3- internal respiration:
• a) gas exchange between cells & tissue fluids
• b) chemical reactions that end by release of energy
3.
4.
5. Mechanics of respiration
The lungs are enclosed in an air tight compartment & the only
connection with atmosphere is through the mouth & nose
The lungs are surrounded by minute space called pleural space
that contains a film of fluid to lubricate the movement of the
lungs
The pleural space is lying between 2 layers of pleura; visceral
pleura, attached to the lungs & parietal pleura lining the
inner surface of thoracic cage and diaphragm
The chest wall is formed of muscles, ribs, vertebrae, skin &
subcutaneous tissue
7. The diaphragm
• The diaphragm is a muscle, separates the
thoracic cavity from the abdomen
• When relaxed……. Dome shape
• When contract…… It descends & become less
convex
8.
9. The ribs are connected with two layers of
muscles:
• External intercostal: pass downwards &
forwards
• Internal intercostal: pass downwards &
backwards
10.
11. • When external intercostal ms contract….. They
raise the upper ribs & sternum…….. Increasing
the antero-posterior diameter of the chest…..
23 – 30% of volume change and slightly the
transverse diameter…1-2%
• When diaphragm contracts…….becomes less
convex, pushes the abdominal viscera
downwards…….. Increases the vertical diameter
of the chest ….70% of the increase in volume
14. Intra-alveolar pressure
• These changes in the intra alveolar pressure are
caused by Changes in the Volume of the lungs.
• At the end of expiration with the glottis open, it is
atmospheric
• During inspiration, the chest size increases, the
pressure falls below atmospheric(-1), air will flow
into the lungs
• During expiration, the lung recoils, the intra-alveolar
pressure rises above atmospheric (+1), air flows out
of the lungs.
16. The Intrapleural Pressure
Def: It is the pressure inside the pleural sacs
Value: It is always Negative.
at the end of normal expiration: -2
at the end of normal inspiration: -6 to -8
--During forced inspiration: -30 to -70
--During forced expiration with the glottis closed +50 (Valsalva experiment)
*Functions of the intra pleural pressure
1-It helps lung expansion.
2-It helps venous and lymphatic return.
*Causes of negativity of intrapleural pressure:
Tendency of the lung to recoil and tendency of the chest to expand.
At equilibrium, these two opposing forces lead to the negativity of intrapleural pressure
Causes of the tendency of the lung to recoil
1)Elastic tissues in the lungs
2)The surface tension of the fluid lining the alveoli. At the air water interface, the attractive
forces between the water molecules make the water lining like a stretched balloon that
tries to shrink. This force (Surface tension) is strong enough to collapse the alveoli.
* If air is introduced into the pleural space:
1- the lung will collapse
2- the chest will expand
3- the intrapleural pressure increases, becomes atmospheric 4- venous return decreases
21. Mechanism of air flow between lungs and
atmosphere
• Stimulation of the phrenic nerve, and the intercostal
nerves… contraction of diaphragm & external
intercostals…. Increasing the vertical & anteroposterior diameter of the chest….. Increase in chest
volume …. Decrease intra-pleural pressure.. The
lungs expands… decrease intra-alveolar
pressure….the air flows into the lungs
• It is an active process (involving muscle contraction)
22. Inspiration
• The diaphragm and external intercostal muscles
(inspiratory muscles) contract and the rib cage
rises
• The lungs are stretched and intrapulmonary
volume increases
• Intrapulmonary pressure drops below
atmospheric pressure (−1 mm Hg)
• Air flows into the lungs, down its pressure
gradient, until intrapleural pressure =
atmospheric pressure
25. Expiration
• When inspiration ends, the muscles relax….
Decrease in the diameters of the chest…. The
thoracic wall recoils …. The intra-pleural
pressure rises…the elastic lungs recoil…
compressing the air… rising of the intraalveolar pressure… air is forced out
• It is a passive process (relaxation of muscles &
recoil of elastic fibers)
28. Accessory muscles of respiration
• During quiet breathing, only 1/10 of the external
intercostal muscles & diaphragm are active &
expiration is a passive process
• With more powerful respiration, all fibers of intercostal
& diaphragm are active, this increases the pulmonary
ventilation 10 folds
• More forced respiration, there is accessory ms of
inspiration (sternomastoid, serratus anterior, scaleni) &
expiration (internal intercostal, abdominal recti ms),
these make respiration more deep & decrease airway
resistance
30. Lung volumes
• Lung volumes:
• 1- Tidal volume (TV or Vt): it is the volume of air inspired or
expired each cycle during normal quiet breathing, it is 500
mL
• 2- Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV): it is the maximum
volume of air can be inspired after normal inspiration, it is
3000 mL
• 3- Expiratory reserve volume (ERV) it is the maximum
volume of air can be expired after normal expiration, it is
1100 mL
• 4- Residual volume (RV): it is the volume of air remaining in
the lungs after maximal expiration, it can not be expired, it
prevent lung collapse & aerates the blood between
breaths, it is 1200 mL
34. Lung capacities
• A capacity is two or more volumes added together
• 1- Inspiratory capacity (IC): it is the maximum volume
of air can be inspired after normal expiration.
• IC= TV+ IRV= 3500mL
• 2- Functional residual capacity (FRC): it is the volume
of air remained in the lung after normal expiration
• FRC=ERV+RV= 2300mL.
35. Lung capacities
• 3-Vital capacity: (VC) it is the maximum volume
of air can be expired after maximal inspiration.
• VC=IRV+ERV+TV=4600mL
• Total lung capacity: (TLC) it is the volume of air
contained in the lung after deep inspiration.
• TLC=IRV+ERV+TV+RV= 5800mL
• All lung capacities are 20-25% more in males
than females, more in athletes, less in
recumbent position
36. Work of Breathing
Energy required during normal respiration is 2-3%
of the total energy expenditure, it increases in
heavy exercise, but the ratio to total energy
expenditure remains nearly the same.
Work is done only in inspiration, but normal
expiration is a passive process depending on the
elastic recoil of the lung and chest wall.
*Contraction of expiratory muscles occurs when air
way resistance or tissue resistance increases as in
asthma. (expiration needs work)
37. Work of breathing
• Energy are needed for contraction of respiratory
muscles. Increase when accessory ms contracts in
deep& forced breathing
• 1- overcome the viscosity of the expanding lung (non
elastic tissue resistance)
• 2- stretch the thoracic & lung elastic fibers & overcome
the surface tension in the alveoli. This energy increase
if surfactant is deficient
• 3- overcome airway resistance. This increase in
bronchial asthma or obstructive emphysema
38. Compliance
• It is the ability to expand or stretch
• It is the reciprocal of elasticity (recoil of stretched
elastic fibers)
• It is a useful measurement for diagnosis of
respiratory diseases
• It is the change in length or volume per unit change
in stretching force.
• Normal compliance of lungs & thorax =
0.11L/cmH2O pressure
• Normal compliance of lungs alone = 0.2 L/cmH2O
pressure
39. Compliance
• High compliance means a given change in pressure
moves a larger volume of air in the lungs
• Low compliance in fibrosis, congestion, oedema,
bronchial obstruction or in increased surface tension
• The compliance is small in newborn, increases
gradually with age, decreases in old age
• The main factors affect compliance are: congestion,
size, surface tension
40. Surface Tension
• Force exerted by fluid in alveoli to resist
distension.
• Lungs secrete and absorb fluid, leaving a very thin film of fluid.
– This film of fluid causes surface tension.
• H20 molecules at the surface are attracted to
other H20 molecules by attractive forces.
– Force is directed inward, raising pressure in alveoli.
41. Surfactant
•
Def:
It is the surface active agent
• Composition: Phospholipid
(dipalmitoyl lecithin), protein and
Carbohydrates
• Secretion: produced by alveolar type II
cells.
• Action: Lowers surface tension.
• Functions of surfactant:
1) Facilitates lung expantion
2) Prevent lung collapse As alveoli radius Surfactant Deficiency:
decreases, surfactant’s ability to lower RDS of the newborn. The
surface tension increases.
lung is rigid and
3) Prevent pulmonary oedema
oedematous and the
alveoli collapse
44. Alveolar Ventilation
• The inspired air is distributed between:
• 1- The anatomical Dead Space: It is the part of the respiratory
system where no gas exchange takes place. It extends from the
mouth to the terminal bronchioles. Ventilation of dead space is said
to be wasted ventilation.=1/3 of the resting tidal volume
• 2- the rest of air occupies the respiratory bronchioles, the alveolar
ducts, alveoli and alveolar sacs, gas exchange takes place
• Minute Ventilation= VT (ml/breath) x Respiratory rate (breath/min)
=500 x 12
=6000 ml/min.
• Alveolar ventilation= 2/3 x 500 x12
=4000 ml/min.
• Dead space ventilation= 1/3 x 500 x 12
= 2000ml/min.
45.
46.
47. Measurement of the dead space
• Bohr`s equation:
• Anatomical dead space=
tidal volume x (alveolar CO2- expired CO2)
Alveolar CO2
48. Physiological dead space
• The anatomical dead space + unperfused
alveoli
• In Normal person the anatomical dead space=
the physiological dead space
• In certain diseases the physiological dead
space may be 10 times anatomical dead
space or more.
49. Gas exchange
• Alveolar air contains less O2 & more CO2 than
inspired air (mixed with air that was in the
dead space)
• Expired air constitute a mixture of alveolar air
and dead space (which is atmospheric)
• The exchange of oxygen & CO2 between
alveoli & blood is passive by diffusion
50. Comparison between the respiratory
gases
atmospheric Alveolar air Expired air
air
O2
159mmHg
104mmHg
120mmHg
CO2
0.3mmHg
40mmHg
27mmHg
H2O
variable
47mmHg
47mmHg
N2
597mmHg
569mmHg
566mmHg
Total
pressure
760mmHg
760mmHg
760mmHg
51. Gas exchange
• O2 of air is higher in the
lungs than in the blood, O2
diffuses from air to the
blood.
• C02 moves from the blood
to the air by diffusing
down its concentration
gradient.
• Gas exchange occurs
entirely by diffusion.
• Diffusion is rapid because
of the large surface area
and the small diffusion
distance.
52.
53.
54. Diffusion is determined by several factors:
• 1- Alveolar- capillary membrane:
• Semi-permeable: separates alveolar air from
pulmonary capillary blood
• Layers:
• Fluid film lining the alveoli
• Alveolar membrane
• Interstitial fluid
• Capillary wall
55. :The respiratory membrane
Total AREA available for
diffusion of gases is large
in human 70 m2
Diffusion PATH LENGTH
is very small, =2µm
Pulmonary
Epithelium
56. • 2- Partial pressure gradient of gases across the
alveolar capillary membrane:
• The partial pressure of oxygen in mixed venous blood is
40mmHg
• The partial pressure of oxygen in alveolar air is
100mmHg
• O2 diffuses from the alveoli to the capillary blood along
a partial pressure gradient of 60mmHg
• The partial pressure of CO2 in mixed venous blood is
46mmHg
• The partial pressure of CO2 in alveolar air 40 mmHg
• CO2 diffuses along pressure gradient of 6 mmHg
57. • 3- the physical properties of gases:
• Solubility: the more soluble the gas, the faster its diffusion (CO2
is 23 fold more soluble than O2)
• Molecular weight: the higher the molecular weight of the gas,
the slower its diffusion
• The solubility of a gas & its MW determine diffusion coefficient
(the rate of diffusion through a unit area of a given membrane
per unit pressure difference.
• Diffusion coefficient = solubility / √molecular size
• The diffusion coefficient of O2 = 1.0
• The diffusion coefficient of CO2 = 20
• CO2 can diffuse 20 times faster than O2
• Diffusion failure affects O2 before affecting CO2
• 4- surface area of the alveolar capillary membrane: 70square
meter
• When increased, gas exchange increases
58. • 5-Ventilation- blood flow ratio:
• Effective surface area means the functional alveoli in
contact with functioning capillaries, where the alveolar air
comes in contact with capillary blood
• Ventilation / perfusion ratio = alveolar ventilation/
pulmonary blood flow
• In a normal adult male at rest
• Alveolar ventilation is 4L/min
• Pulmonary blood flow is 5L/min
• Ventilation / perfusion ratio=0.8
• Diseases that affects the alveolar capillary membrane will
lower the diffusion capacity of O2
• Fatal levels of O2 diffusion impairment is reached long
before CO2 diffusion is affected
59. Exchange of gases
Atmospheric air
Alveolar air
%
%
CO2 0.04%
pressure
0.3mmHg 5.6%
pressure
40mmHg
O2 20.95%
159mmHg 14.8%
105mmHg
N2 79.00%
600mmHg 79.6%
568mmHg
60.
61. Gas Transport by The Blood
•
•
•
•
Oxygen transport:
O2 is transported in the blood in two forms:
1- Attached in loose combination with Hb
Over 98% of arterial O2 is carried in the form of
oxyhemoglobin. PO2 in systemic arterial blood is usually
below 100mmHg eventhough it may be 100mmHg in the
pulmonary capillary blood, because some venous blood mixes
with arterial blood
• 2- Physically dissolved: less than 2% of O2 in the arterial
blood. At PO2 100mmHg, about 0.3ml O2 dissolve in 100ml
blood. In venous blood, PO2 is 40mmHg, about 0.12ml O2 /
100ml blood is dissolved.
62. Oxyhaemoglobin
• Haemoglobin has great affinity for O2
• It combines loosely & reversibly with O2 by
process called oxygenation (not oxidation)
• The reaction is very fast, less than 10 msec
• The reaction increases with the increase in
PO2
• The relation between oxyHb formation and
PO2 is studied in the Oxyhaemoglobin
dissociation curve
63. Hemoglobin
Each hemoglobin has 4
polypeptide chains and 4
hemes.
• In the center of each
heme group is 1 atom of
iron that can combine
with 1 molecule 02.
• Fe remains in the ferrous
form (Oxygenation and
not oxidation)
• Hb carries 65 times as
much as plasma at PO2 of
100mmHg
Insert fig. 16.32
Figure 16.32
64. • Hemoglobin dissociation curves:
• Def:It is a relationship between PO2 and %HbO2 saturation (and not
content)
• Characteristics:
• 1-It is not linear, it is sigmoid (S shaped) with flat part and steep part.
• Causes of S shaped curve
• Hb is formed of 4 sub units which load or unload with different
affinity.
• Oxygenation of one haem unit leads to configurational change in the
Hb molecule, increasing affinity of the second, and oxygenation of
the 2nd , increasing affinity of the 3rd ,etc..
• The dissociation curve starts slowly, but rapidly gained sigmoid shape
• 2-there is steep rise in the percentage saturation of Hb between PO2
0& 75mmHg
• 3- above 75mmHg, there is slow rise of the curve, becoming more or
less flat at PO2 of 80mmHg
65.
66.
67. • 1gm of Hb binds up to 1.34ml O2
• The partial pressure of O2 in the arterial blood is about
95mmHg,Hb is 97% saturated (Hb concentration is
150gm/L, O2 content is 195ml/l of blood)
• At PO2 40mmHg, Hb saturation is 75% saturated.
• At rest, Arterio-venous difference (O2 uptake by
tissues) is about 40-45ml /L of blood
• During exercise, oxygen uptake by tissues increase,
PO2 drops to 15 mmHg, % saturation 20%, O2
content=40ml
• During exercise, the arterio-venous O2 difference,
150ml/L
• Quantity of O2 carried in a volume of blood is
dependent on PO2 & Hb concentration.
69. Factors which affect Oxy-Hb
dissociation curve
• Shift to the right: (facilitate the release of O2 at
tissues) →↓ affinity of Hb for O2→ easier giving
O2 to the tissues
• 1- ↑ PCO2: Bohr effect
• 2-↓ pH :due to lactic acid during exercise,
more CO2 production
• 3-↑ temperature: active tissues during
oxidative processes more heat is released,
more O2 supply to the tissues
• 4- ↑ 2,3 DPG: found in RBCs & increases
in cases of hypoxia & high altitudes
70. Advantages of “S-shaped” curve for Hb-O2 association
20
High affinity only
Can’t release much
O2 to tissues
15
S-shaped hemoglobin curve
ml O2/100 ml blood
Releases much
O2 at tissues
Becomes saturated
with O2 at lungs
10
Low affinity only
Doesn’t hold on to
much O2 at tissues
5
0
Active cell
But can’t pick up
much O2 at lungs
71. Bohr Shift Hb-02 Curve
% Saturation of
Hemoglobin
100
↓ +],↓ 2
[H CO
Temp
↓
80
Normal Hb
60
Bohr Shift
↑ +], ↑ 2, ↑
[H
CO Temp or DPG
40
20
0
0
20
40
60
PaO2 (mm Hg)
80
100
72. • Factors shift the curve to the left: (increases
Hb affinity to O2, Easier picking up O2,
Difficult release of O2)
• 1- ↓ PCO2 at lungs
• 2- ↑pH
• 3- ↓ temperature
• 4- foetal Hb: as it binds to 2,3 DPG less
effectively
73. •
•
•
•
•
•
•
Dissolved O2:
↑ PO2….↑ dissolved O2
O2 is poorly soluble
In 100ml blood, 0.003ml O2 dissolve /1mmHg PO2
In arterial blood, 0.3 ml/100ml
In venous blood, 0.12 ml/100ml
The dissolved O2 is at equilibrium with the O2 combined
with Hb
• It is the dissolved O2 gets transferred to tissues & become
replaced from O2 carried by Hb
• Although dissolved O2 is less than 2% of total O2 transport,
it is essential for tissues that do not have blood supply, as
cartilage & cornea which depend on O2 dissolved in tissue
fluids
• ↑ dissolved O2 by breathing pure or hyperbaric O2 (this is
the base of O2 therapy)
74. CO2 transport
• It is transported from tissues that produce
CO2 to the lungs, where it is unloaded,
removed to the atmosphere
• It is transported by plasma & RBCs
75. • Transport of CO2 in the blood:
• 1- dissolves in the plasma & RBCs: 5%, it is important
because it determines the tension (40mmHg in arterial
blood & 46 mmHg in venous blood) & determine the
direction of flow
• 2- chemically combined: 95% of CO2
• a-carbamino compounds: carried by plasma proteins &
hemoglobin
• b- bicarbonates:
• In the form of KHCO3 & NaHCO3
• 43ml/100ml in arterial blood
• 56ml/100ml in venous blood
76. Tidal CO2 transport
• It is the volume of CO2 added to each 100ml of arterial
blood during its flow through the tissues
• CO2 produced by active cells as a result of metabolism
• Normally 4ml/100ml blood during rest (52-48)
• CO2 carried in 3 forms in plasma:
• 1- dissolves in the plasma
• 2- Bicarbonates:
• 3- Carbamino proteins:
77. Tissues
CO 2
C.A.
slow
HCO 3
CO 2 + H 2 O
HCO 3 -
→
H 2 CO 3
HbO 2 → Hb. H + O 2
+
→ H+ +
O2
-
Hb + CO 2
Hb . CO 2
(carbamino cmpd.)
How is CO2 carried by the blood??
Plasma: dissolved
HCO3carbamino proteins
RBCs: dissolved
HCO3Carbamino Hb
78. •
•
•
•
•
•
•
Control of ventilation
Mechanism of regulation involves:
Nervous & chemical
The respiratory centre:
In the medulla & pons.
Can be divided into 4 groups;
1- dorsal respiratory group: (Rhythmicity centre)
In the medulla, they are inspiratory neurons, they
discharge rhythmically during resting & forced inspiration
• 2- ventral respiratory group:( expiratory neurons)
• In the medulla, they are inactive during resting
breathing
• Activated in forced ventilation as in exercise
79. • 3- Apneustic centre:
• In the pons
• It sends excitatory impulses to dorsal respiratory
group, potentiates the inspiratory drive. Section to
remove the apneustic impulses…. Gasping
breathing( shallow inspiration followed by long
expiration)
• Receives inhibitory impulses from vagus nerve during
inflation of the lungs (Hering Breuer reflex)
• Receives inhibitory impulses from Pneumotaxic
centre in the upper pons
• Section of vagus & abolishing the impulses from
pneumotaxic centre, results in apneustic breathing
(prolonged inspiration)
80. • 4-Pneumotaxic centre: in the upper pons
• It sends inhibitory impulses to apneustic
center & to inspiratory areas to switch off
respiration
81.
82. • Both inspiratory & expiratory areas are
influenced by impulses from pneumotaxic &
apneustic center & higher centers
• DRG are the integrating site for different
inputs
83. Nervous control of ventilation
• The rhythmicity centre sends sends excitatory impulses via phrenic &
intercostal nerves to diaphragm, external intercostal muscles
• The rhythmicity center receives impulses from higher brain centers,
brain stem, special receptors
• Higher brain centers:
• 1- impulses from cerebral cortex: voluntary hyperventilation,
voluntary apnea
• 2- impulses from cerebellum: coordinates breathing with other
activities as swallowing, talking, coughing
• 3- Impulses from hypothalamus: centers of emotions & temperature
regulation, breathing modified during emotional stress, changes of
temperature, (panting of dogs)
84. • Centers in the medulla & pons:
• 1- the rhythmicity center interconnected with the
cardiac & vasomotor centers located in the medulla
• 2- apneustic center sends excitatory impulses to
rhythmicity center to produce deep inspiration
• 3- pneumotaxic center to rhythmicity center to
inhibit deep inspiration & to apneustic center
85. • Special receptors:
• 1- sensory vagal fibers: when lung is inflated, stretch
receptors are stimulated, send inhibitory impulses
through vagus to inhibit the apneustic center (Hering
Breuer inflation reflex) protects the lung from overinflation. There is a weaker Hering Breuer deflation
reflex
• 2- active & passive movement of joints & muscles:
propioceptive stimulation stimulate breathing in
exercise
• 3- skin receptors: noxious stimuli stimulate breathing
• 4- baroreceptors in aortic arch & carotid sinus modify
breathing
86. Chemical control of ventilation
•
•
•
•
•
Central & peripheral chemoreceptors:
Peripheral chemoreceptors:
Site: in the carotid & aortic bodies
Stimuli: ↓ in arterial PO2, ↑PCO2, ↓pH
Stimulation: send stimulatory impulses to
rhythmicity center via glossopharyngeal &
vagus nerves
87. Central chemoreceptors
•
•
•
•
Central chemoreceptors:
Site: medulla
Stimuli: H+ ion concentration in the CSF
H+ ion can not cross the blood brain barrier,
but it increases in the CSF secondary to
↑PCO2 in the blood, which pass through BBB
to the CSF
• It sends simulatory impulse to stimulates
ventilation
88. Plasma
CO2
BBB
CSF
CO2 ←→ HCO3 + H+
HCO3
+
H+
Respiratory
Alkalosis
high pHCSF limits
Hyperventilation
When pHCNS
returns to norm
(HCO3 pumped out)
VE is less restrained
89. Chemoreceptors
• Monitor changes in
blood PC0 , P0 , and pH.
• Central:
2
2
– Medulla.
Insert fig. 16.27
• Peripheral:
– Carotid and aortic
bodies.
• Control breathing
indirectly.
Figure 16.27
90. Hypoxia
•
•
•
•
•
It means deficient O2 supply to the tissues
Causes:
1- interference with O2 in the lungs
2- interference with O2 transport in blood
3- interference with O2 delivery to the tissues
91. Hypoxia
• Types:
• 1- hypoxic hypoxia: low PO2 in the arterial blood
• 2- anaemic hypoxia: lowering O2 carrying capacity of the
blood
• 3- stagnant hypoxia: slow circulation
• 4- histotoxic hypoxia: disturbed uptake of O2 by tissues
• Treatment:
• O2 therapy, correcting underlying cause
92. Hypoxic hypoxia
• Causes: Any interference with normal oxygenation of the
arterial blood leading to low PO2 as in:
• 1- low atmospheric PO2 as in high altitude
• 2- ventilation defects: as in paralysis of respiratory ms,
airway obstruction, poisons that inhibits the
• respiratory center as morphine & barbiturates (high CO2)
• 2- interfere with normal O2 diffusion in the lung
• 3- mixing of arterial blood with venous blood as in venoarterial shunts & congenital heart disease
• Low PO2, low % saturation of Hb, low O2 content in the
arterial &venous blood
93. Anaemic hypoxia
• Causes: anaemia, abnormal hemoglobins, CO
poisoning
• PO2 is normal in the arterial &venous blood
• % saturation is normal in the arterial &venous
blood
• (except in CO poisoning)
• Low O2 content in the arterial &venous blood
94. Stagnant hypoxia
•
•
•
•
Types:
1- localized: e.g. disturbed circulation in a limb
2- generalized as in heart failure
normal arterial blood PO2, % saturation,O2 content
• ↓Venous blood PO2, ↓ % saturation, ↓Content of O2
95. Histotoxic hypoxia
• Disturbance of O2 uptake due to poisoning of
cellular enzymes e.g. cyanide poisoning or tissue
oedema
• normal arterial blood PO2, % saturation,O2
content
• ↑Venous blood PO2, ↑% saturation, ↑Content of
O2
96. Types of
hypoxia
Arterial blood
Venous blood
PO2
%sat
%O2
PO2 %sat %O2
low
low
low
low
low
low
Anaemic normal normal low
low
low
low
Stagnant normal normal normal low
low
low
histotoxic normal normal normal high
high
high
Hypoxic
97. Cyanosis
•
•
•
•
•
Def: blue coloration of the skin & mucous membrane
Cause: reduced Hb more than 5gm/100ml
Types:
Localized type: in the tips of fingers in cold
Generalized: in veno-arterial shunts, severe hypoxia
in the newborn, or at very high altitude
• It is more common seen in polycythemia
• it s very rare in anaemia (the person already has low
Hb, so he cannot have 5gm reduced Hb)